REESE  LIBRARY 

()!••  THK 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
^eceii)ed 

z/tccessious  No.foSf/jy  /   .     Chi ^  No. 


EXERCISES 


IN 


WITH  A  SHORT  TREATISE  ON  WOOD 


WRITTEN  FOR  MANUAL   TRAINING   GLASSES 
IN  SCHOOLS  AND    COLLEGES 


BY 
IVIN   SICKELS,  M.  S.,  M.  D. 


11  CF  THE 


-UNIVERSITY) 

OF 


NEW  YORK  •:•  CINCINNATI  •:•  CHICAGO 
AMERICAN    BOOK    COMPANY 


COPYRIGHT,  1889, 
BY  D.   APPLETON  AND  COMPANY. 


prtnteb  b^ 

B.  Bppleton  &  Company 
flew  lorft,  TH.  S.  B. 


PEEFACE. 


THE  exercises  in  wood-working  in  this  book  were  pre- 
pared by  me  during  the  summer  "of  1883,  for  the  students 
of  the  College  of  the  City  of  New  York.  Subsequent 
teaching  suggested  many  changes  and  additions,  until  the 
manuscript  was  scarcely  preseSfeble.  This  manuscript  has 
been  copied  for  other  schools  ;  and  now,  in  order  that  those 
who  have  recently  asked  for  it  may  receive  it  in  better 
shape,  this  little  volume  is  printed. 

I  am  indebted  to  Mr.  Bashford  Dean  for  the  part  relat- 
ing to  injurious  insects,  which  was  written  expressly  for 

this  book. 

I.  S. 
NEW  YORK,  September,  1889. 


TY 

y 


€CT°ERSITT) 
CN8"  S 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION ..     .  7 

PART  FIRST.— WOOD. 

Structure  of  wood 

Composition  of  wood 

Branching  of  stems 19 

Age  of  trees 20 

Decay  of  trees 20 

Season  for  cutting 21 

Milling 21 

Drying  of  wood      .        .        . 22 

Warping -23 

Properties  of  wood         . 24 

Defects  in  wood 28 

Measure  and  value  of  wood 29 

Kinds  of  wood 30 

Table  of  chief  qualities  of  wood 38 

Wood  and  iron 38 

Wood-working  trades 39 

Parasitic  plants 41 

Timber-borers •        •  45 

Preservation  of  wood 52 

PART  SECOND. — EXERCISES. 

Tools  (Plates  A  and  B) 58 

Drawing  (Plate  C) 63 

Exercise  1.— Use  of  the  chisel 64 

2. — Use  of  the  chisel  (continued) 66 

3.— Use  of  the  gouge 68 

4. — Use  of  the  hammer   .....•••>  70 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Exercise  5. — Use  of  the  jack-plane 72 

6. — Plane  (continued)  and  marking-gauge 74 

7. — Use  of  the  rip-saw 70 

8. — Use  of  the  cross-cut .78 

Sharpening  tools  with  the  oil-stone  (Plate  D) 80 

Sharpening  tools  on  the  grindstone  (Plate  E) 82 

Sharpening  tools.     Saw-filing  (Plate  F) .84 

Exercise    9. — Construction  of  a  half-joint 86 

10.— Modified  forms  of  the  half-joint 88 

11. — Construction  of  a  mortise- joint 00 

12. — Pinning  the  mortise-joint 92 

13. — Construction  of  a  stub-mortise 94 

14. — Construction  of  a  dovetail-joint 96 

15. — Construction  of  a  miter-joint 98 

16.— Use  of  the  miter-box       .        .        .   ' 100 

17. — Construction  of  a  stretcher-joint 102 

18. — Uniting  with  dowels 104 

19.— Gluing 106 

20. — Examples  of  glued  joints 108 

21. — Laying  out  a  dovetailed  box  .  .  .  .  ,  .  .110 
22. — Laying  out  and  cutting  the  dovetails  .  .  .  .  .112 
23. — Marking  and  cutting  the  tenons  .  .  .  .  .  .  114 

24.— Finishing  the  box v        .  116 

25. — Hinging  the  top  to  the  box 118 

26. — Construction  of  a  drawer        .        .        .        .        .        .        .  120 

27. — Construction  of  a  blind-dovetailed  box 122 

28.— Framing 124 

29. — Construction  of  window  and  door  frames       ....  126 

30.— Inclosing  a  building 128 

31. — Laying  floors.    Trimming      . 130 

32. — Construction  of  a  sash 132 

33. — Construction  of  a  door    .        .        .        .        .        .        .        .134 

34. — Construction  of  stairs 136 

35. — Laying  out  and  shaping  the  hand-rail    .        .        .        .        .  138 

36. — Use  of  the  frame-saw.     Bending  wood 140 

37. — Construction  of  a  pattern 142 

38. — Shaping  a  boat-model 144 

39.— Veneering 146 

Polishing         .        .        . 148 

Painting 149 

Index  .  151 


EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  tendency  of  modern  systems  of  education  is  toward 
a  proper  distribution  of  practical  with  theoretical  training. 
The  mind  is  to  be  aided  in  its  development  by  the  action  of 
the  eye  and  hand ;  and,  in  fact,  all  the  special  senses  are 
employed  in  objective  teaching  and  manual  exercises.  In 
school,  the  eye  does  more  than  interpret  the  printed  page :  it 
recognizes  the  form  and  color  of  objects,  it  must  calculate 
their  size,  proportion,  and  distance,  by  observing  and  com- 
paring them  ;  the  hand  is  required  to  do  more  than  writing : 
it  is  taught  to  appreciate  the  weight,  hardness,  and  other 
properties  of  objects,  by  actual  contact  with  them.  At  first 
the  introduction  of  drawing,  modeling,  and  the  use  of  tools, 
into  the  courses  of  study  was  experimental;  but,  having 
passed  beyond  that  stage,  these  exercises  are  now  known  to 
be  efficient  aids  to  a  more  natural  and  rapid  as  well  as 
stronger  mental  development. 

There  are  some  who,  after  being  educated  in  the  abstract 
way,  can  apply  their  training  successfully  to  practical  pur- 
suits, who  see  no  necessity  for  manual  or  industrial  training 
in  the  schools,  and  who  claim  that  superior  and  sufficient 
development  may  be  obtained  by  the  study  of  mercantile 
methods  and  the  classics.  These,  however,  form  a  very  small 
percentage  of  the  people,  and  systems  of  education  must  be 
arranged  to  stimulate  all  intellects,  and  not  measured  by  the 
accomplishments  of  a  few.  Our  best  educators  recognize 
this  fact,  and  are  modifying  old  systems  by  the  greater  intro- 
duction of  manual  elements.  No  one  doubts  the  value  of 
practical  qualities,  not  only  in  ordinary  people,  but  also  in 


8  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

prominent  leaders,  who  must  be  thoroughly  practical — a  fact 
so  aptly  illustrated  by  prosperous  manufacturers  and  mer- 
chants, successful  engineers,  great  generals,  and  eminent 
statesmen. 

Manual  training  for  the  early  cultivation  of  these  prac- 
tical qualities  in  students  takes  a  place  in  the  regular  courses 
of  study :  by  means  of  it  the  reasoning  power  is  more  easily 
awakened;  knowledge  of  objects  and  the  facts  connected  with 
them  are  more  readily  understood  and  remembered;  and, 
above  all,  the  accuracy  and  precision  demanded  by  the  prac- 
tical studies,  lead  to  closer  observation  and  exactness  in 
others.  This  training  begins  in  the  lowest  grades,  and  con- 
tinues in  its  various  applications  through  all  the  classes, 
until  in  the  higher  grades  we  find  sufficient  physical  strength 
to  handle  the  ordinary  wood-working  tools. 

The  prime  object  of  all  manual  training,  especially  in 
this  country,  is  to  aid  mental  development,  and  while  this 
fact  must  not  be  lost  sight  of,  the  training  should  be  in  some 
useful  art,  or  in  some  exercises  which  are  introductory  to 
the  useful  arts. 

Perhaps  the  most  valuable  of  these  studies  is  industrial 
drawing,  which  is  in  itself  a  sort  of  universal  language,  a 
medium  between  thought  and  execution.  Its  study  cultivates 
precision,  and  is  well  calculated  to  develop  sound  and  accu- 
rate ideas.  Drawing  naturally  precedes  construction,  it  pre- 
pares the  way  for  the  work  of  the  engineer,  manufacturer, 
or  builder.  Even  the  ideas  of  the  inventor  are  jotted  down 
in  a  chance  sketch,  which  is  added  to  and  modified  at  lei- 
sure, leading  to  the  finished  sketch,  from  which  the  skilled 
draughtsman  produces  the  designs  for  the  execution  of  the 
work. 

The  studies  of  drawing  and  wood-working  are  closely 
connected,  and  may  be  taught  together  with  great  advantage 
to  both.  A  simple  object  is  roughly  sketched  on  paper,  its 
measurements  accurately  made  and  marked  on  the  sketch ; 
from  this  a  drawing  is  made  with  instruments,  either  full 
size  or  to  a  scale,  which  is  used  in  the  workshop  as  a  guide 
to  the  construction  of  the  object.  Skill  in  sketching  is  a 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

valuable  acquirement,  and  should  be  taught  early  in  the 
course  of  industrial  drawing.  These  sketches  should,  if  pos- 
sible, be  made  from  real  objects,  instead  of  charts,  and  should 
always  be  accompanied  by  measurements.  In  sketching  it 
is  well,  first,  to  determine  the  number  of  diagrams  necessary 
to  show  the  form  or  structure  of  the  object,  and  allot  for 
each  a  certain  space  on  the  paper ;  second,  to  place  each 
sketch  in  the  middle  of  its  space,  of  which  it  should  occupy 
about  one  half,  thus  leaving  a  margin  for  notes,  measure- 
ments, and  small  details ;  third,  to  draw  the  relative  propor- 
tions of  the  object  as  accurately  as  possible ;  fourth,  to  mark 
on  the  sketch  the  measurements  of  each  part. 

Wood- working  from  the  simple  constructions  of  earliest 
times  has  advanced  with  the  necessities  and  customs  of 
nations,  until  at  present  it  includes  the  complicated  struct- 
ures of  modern  requirements.  Throughout  all  wood-working 
trades  we  find  certain  general  principles  regarding  the  cut- 
ting action  of  tools  on  wood,  and  the  joining  of  different 
pieces ;  and,  since  those  principles  are  more  easily  taught  by 
carpentry  and  joinery,  these  branches  have  been  generally 
adopted  as  educational  aids. 

The  very  extensive  use  of  wood  for  building  has  given 
rise  in  this  country  to  a  craft  of  carpenters  whose  improved 
tools  and  methods  of  work  are  superior  in  many  respects  to 
those  of  European  workmen.  Based  upon  these  methods, 
workshop  practice  in  schools  and  colleges  as  applied  to  wood- 
work does  not  stop  with  carpentry :  its  design  is  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  entire  field  of  mechanical  arts ;  so  that  car- 
pentry and  joinery  are  followed  by  turnery,  carving,  and 
possibly  a  few  lessons  in  pattern-making.  These  should  be 
followed  by  metal- work,  such  as  forging,  chipping,  filing, 
and,  finally,  with  the  elements  of  machine-work.  The  study 
of  mechanics  as  thus  taught  in  the  educational  workshop 
should  be  applied  correctly,  by  methods  which  are  the  actual 
but  intelligent  practice  of  the  operating  mechanic.  As  to 
the  time  required,  it  can  not  be  expected  that  the  three  to 
five  hours  per  week  spent  in  the  workshop  are  going  to  make 
mechanics;  far  from  it:  several  years  of  labor  and  experi- 


10  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

ence  are  necessary  to  produce -skilled  workmen  in  any  of  the 
arts. 

This  book  deals  with  carpentry  and  joinery,  and  is  divided 
into  two  parts : 

The  First  Part  treats  of  the  structure,  properties,  and 
kinds  of  wood ;  its  manufactures  and  economic  relations  to 
other  substances,  parasitic  plants  and  insects ;  and  means  of 
preserving  wood. 

The  Second  Part  contains  the  exercises,  preceded  by  a 
description  of  tools,  and  the  manner  of  drawing  used  to  illus- 
trate the  exercises. 

These  exercises  are  based  upon  American  methods  of 
work  and  have  been  taught  as  follows :  Each  exercise  was 
explained,  illustrated  by  sketches  on  the  blackboard,  and 
then  executed  by  the  students.  As  the  exercises  advanced, 
the  blackboard  sketches  were  prepared  with  more  detail, 
each  being  shown  with  its  measurements  designated.  The 
students  copied  these  sketches  and  noted  down  such  of  the 
verbal  directions  as  they  could.  With  the  higher  exercises 
it  was  found  necessary  to  issue  duplicate  copies,  describing 
and  illustrating  each  step  in  construction,  and  also  to  exem- 
plify by  models  made  by  the  instructor. 

Exercises  1  to  8  introduce  the  chief  wood-working  tools 
and  methods  of  marking.  These  exercises  should  be  executed 
with  much  care  and  patience,  and  if  necessary  repeated,  to 
insure  better  results  in  subsequent  work. 

Following  exercise  8  are  directions  for  sharpening  tools. 
But  students  should  not  attempt  to  sharpen  tools  until  they 
have  had  considerable  practice  in  the  use  of  them ;  especially 
saw-filing,  which  requires  remarkably  good  judgment,  keen 
eye-sight,  and  a  steady  hand. 

Exercises  9  to  20  give  instructions  for  marking  out  and 
shaping  simple  joints. 

Exercises  21  to  27  instruct  in  the  methods  employed  in 
uniting  several  pieces  to  make  a  complete  structure. 

Exercises  28  to  35  give  the  details  of  ordinary  house-car- 
pentry, from  which  the  student  may  obtain  particulars  for 
the  construction  of  models,  and  the  apprentice  the  actual 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

building  of  the  various  parts  making  up  a  wooden  dwell- 
ing. 

Exercise  36  shows  the  use  of  the  frame-saw,  and  methods 
of  bending  wood. 

Exercise  37  gives  an  example  of  pattern- work,  and  illus- 
trates the  manner  of  uniting  pieces  for  economy  of  labor. 

Exercise  38  instructs  in  shaping  by  the  use  of  templets. 

Exercise  39  treats  of  veneering,  followed  by  directions  for 
painting  and  polishing. 


s*Tf&&^*      LIBfi/f^yN^ 
f  OF  THE  \ 

(UNIVERSITY) 

V.  ®f  *S 


PART  FIRST. 


STRUCTURE  OF  WOOD. 

IF  we  examine  the  stem  of  a  young  plant,  we  find  three 
distinct  tissues  composing  it :  On  the  outside  is  the  bark  or 
protecting  tissue  ( a,  Fig/  3) ;  inside  there  is  a  soft  material, 
made  up  of  many-sided,  thin- walled  cells,  which  constitute 
the  living  portion  (6,  Fig.  3) ;  and  arranged  in  a  circle  in  this 
soft  tissue  are  several  fibrous  bundles  (c,  Fig.  3),  giving  to  the 
stem  its  strength  to  support  the  branches  and  leaves.  Be- 
cause of  differences  in  the  character  of  these  bundles,  we 
separate  stems  into  three  classes;  and  the  pine,  palm,  and 
oak  may  be  taken  as  types  of  each. 

In  the  pine  and  oak  the  bundles  are  similarly  arranged, 
and  consist  of  an  outer  portion  called  bast  (d,  Fig.  3),  and  an 
inner  portion  called  wood  (e,  Fig.  3) ;  between  these  is  a  thin 
layer  of  active  cells,  which  multiply  by  division  to  form  the 
bast  and  wood ;  this  layer  is  called  cambium  (/,  Fig.  3),  and 
adds  each  year  to  the  size  of  the  bundle.  In  the  palm  the 
bundles  arise  from  active  cells  at  the  growing  point  of  the 
stem,  and  continue  down  the  stem,  sometimes  becoming 
smaller,  but  retaining  a  rounded  form. 

As  the  stems  grow  older  and  larger,  we  find,  in  the  pine, 
that  new  and  branching  bundles  appear  between  the  first 
ones,  forming,  during  the  season,  a  circle  of  bundles,  which 
constitutes  the  first  annual  ring.  This  ring  is  interrupted  by 
plates  of  tissue  communicating  between  the  pith,  on  the  in- 
side of  the  ring,  and  the  soft  tissue  on  the  outside.  In  a  cross- 


H  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

section  of  the  stem  these  plates  are  seen  as  lines,  called  medul- 
lary rays,  radiating  from  the  center  toward  the  bark.    At  the 


FIG.  1.— Diagram  of  a  stem  with  a  cambium  layer.  A,  section  cut  across  the  bundles  ;  B, 
section  in  the  direction  of  the  bundles  ;  1,  2,  3,  first,  second,  and  third  annual  rings  ; 
a,  a,  pith  ;  6,  6,  pitted  vessels  ;  c,  c,  wood-cells  ;  d,  spiral  vessels,  found  only  in  the  first 
annual  ring  ;  e,  cambium-cells  ;  /,  gf,  7i,  layers  of  bark  ;  L  i,  medullary  ray.  (After 
Carpenter.) 

end  of  the  season  growth  stops,  to  be  resumed  again  in  the 
spring.  The  slow  and  condensed  growth  of  summer,  and  the 
rapid,  open  growth  of  spring,  give  rise  to  a  peculiar  mark  in 
the  bundles  which  indicates  each  year's  increase,  so  that  by 
counting  these  marks  or  the  annual  rings  we  may  ascertain 
the  age  of  a  tree. 

The  last  few  rings  formed  are  engaged  in  transporting  or 
storing  up  nourishment,  and  give  rise  to  what  is  called  the 
sap-wood.  The  rings  inside  of  the  sap-wood  serve  only  for 
support,  and  make  up  the  heart- wood  of  the  tree. 

In  the  palm,  new  bundles  arise,  placed  irregularly  in  the 
soft  tissue  or  pith,  and  by  tracing  these  bundles  throughout 
the  plant  we  see  that  they  extend,  usually  without  branch- 
ing, from  the  apex  of  the  leaf  to  the  small  ends  of  the  roots, 
so  that  for  each  new  leaf  there  will  be  in  the  stem  new  bun- 
dles. 


STRUCTURE  OF   WOOD. 


15 


FIG.  2.— Diagram  of  a  palm-stem.  A,  cross-section  ;  B,  longitudinal  section  ;  o,  a,  soft 
tissue  ;  b,  6,  vessels  or  tubes  with  pitted  sides  :  c,  c,  wood-cells  or  fibers  ;  d,  d,  vessels 
with  spiral  markings.  (After  Carpenter.  > 

In  the  oak  we  have  the  same  appearance  regarding  the 
annual  rings  and  medullary  rays  as  in  the  pine : 


Epidermis a.,      bark. 

f      pith...gr. 
Active  cells. . .  6  -j       medullary  ray . .  h. 

(.  f  cambium . ./. 

""BBS?:..!  — US' 

bast-cells.,  d. 


FIG.  3.— Section  of  stem. 


Examining  more  closely  these  wood-forming  bundles,  we 
find  them  composed  of  cells  with  a  variety  of  forms  and  walls 
of  varying  thickness  and  peculiar  markings.  In  the  pine 
group  the  cells  are  long,  with  pointed  ends,  and  walls  marked 
by  characteristic  elevations  called  bordered  pits  (Fig.  4).  These 


16 


EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 


pits  arise  during  the  thickening  of  the  cell-wall,  which  can 
not  take  place  on  the  thin  circular  membranes  (Fig.  10,  c), 
through  which  the  sap  passes,  but  forms  arches  with  open 
tops  over  them,  and  thus  gives  the  bordered  appearance.  In 


FIG.  4. 


FIG.  5. 


FIG.  6. 


FIG.  4. — Section  of  pine-wood  cut  parallel  with  the  medullary  plates,  a,  spring  growth, 
with  large  bordered  pits :  6,  summer  growth,  with  smaller  bordered  pits  ;  c,  medul- 
lary tissue. 

FIG.  5.— Section  at  right  angles  with  the  medullary  plates,  cf,  bordered  pits  ;  e,  medullary 
tissue. 

FIG.  (5. — Cross-section  of  the  same.  /,  summer  growth  ;  g,  spring  growth  ;  7i,  medullary 
ray. 

the  heart-wood  these  thin  membranes  have  broken  down, 
allowing  a  free  passage  of  air  or  water  through  the  cells. 
In  spaces  between  the  wood-cells  there  are,  in  most  of  the 
pines,  canals  containing  resin  dissolved  in  turpentine.  The 
thin  plates  of  tissue  forming  the  medullary  rays  are  com- 
posed of  small  cells,  with  thin  walls  in  the  outer  annual 
rings,  but  in  the  heart-wood  with  walls  very  much  thick- 
ened. 

The  isolated  bundles  of  the  palm  are  composed  of  various 
elemeiits,some  of  which  simply  support,  as  the  bast  and  wood 
fibers  ;  others  support  and  conduct,  as  the  vessels  and  wood- 
cells  ;  these  latter  convey  air,  and  water  charged  with  min- 
eral matters  absorbed  by  the  roots. 

The  bast-fibers  are  on  the  outside,  surrounding  the  bundle, 
and  are  very  long,  narrow,  many-sided  cells,  with  pointed  ends, 
the  walls  very  much  thickened  and  marked  with  oblique  pores. 
The  wood-fibers  are  on  the  inside  of  the  bundle,  similar  to 
the  bast-cells  in  every  respect,  except  that  they  are  shorter, 
and  occasionally  used  for  conducting  and  storing  up  nourish- 


STRUCTURE  OF   WOOD. 


ment.     The  vessels  or  tubes  are  large  and  few,  and  present 
varied  markings ;  the  larger  are  pitted,  the  smaller  either 


S 


FIG.  7.—  Palm-bundle,  a,  a,  bast  ;  b,  pitted 
vessel  ;  c,  wood-cells  ;  d,  smaller  ves- 
sels ;  e,  soft  tissue. 

• 

ringed,  spiral,  netted,  or  ladder-form.  The  wood-cells  are- 
like  those  of  the  pine  group,  but  with  simple  in  place  of  bor- 
dered pits.  There  are  present,  also,  sieve-tubes  with  clusters, 
of  small  perforations  in  sides  and  ends,  and  a  group  of  long,. 
thin-walled  cells  similar  to  the  cambium-cells  of  the.  pine 
and  oak.  Frequently  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
vessels  are  found  thin-  walled  cells  with  blunt 
ends,  separated  from  the  vessels  and  sur- 
rounding cells  by  membranous  pores  ;  these 
cells,  which  are  somewhat  similar  to  cambi- 
um-cells, serve  the  purpose  of  conducting 
and  storing  up  the  organic  materials  formed 
in  the  leaves. 

In  the  oak  group  the  wood  is  composed 
of  compact  bundles  made  up  of  the  same 
fibers,  cells,  and  vessels  found  in  the  palm, 
with  the  exception  of  the  bast-fibers,  which  are  formed  out- 
side of  the  cambium  zone  and  constitute  the  inner  bark.  .In? 
the  spring  growth  the  vessels  are  large  and  numerous  ;  int 
the  autumn  they  are  much  smaller,  and  in  some  cases  may 
be  absent.  By  this  variation  in  the  size  and  position  of  the 
bundles  the  annual  rings  become  distinctly  marked.  The 
medullary  rays  in  the  heart-  wood  vary  in  thickness,  and  in 
many  of  the  woods  the  cells  composing  them  become  solid. 
2 


9  _pitted  vesseis 


18 


EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 


COMPOSITION  OF  WOOD. 

Newly  formed  cells  have  the  wall  composed  of  cellulose,  a 
substance  similar  to  starch  in  composition.  The  contents  of 
the  cell  are  made  up  of  a  number  of  substances,  the  chief  of 
which  are  albuminoids,  starchy  matters,  oils,  and  water  with 
dissolved  sugars,  gums,  and  acids. 

In  the  heart-wood  the  contents  have 
disappeared,  air  taking  their  place,  and 
the  cell- wall  has  become  very  much  thick- 
ened by  a  deposit  within  the  cellulose  of 
a  dense  substance  called  lignin,  which 
gives  to  wood  its  elasticity  and  hard- 
ness. 

In  the  living  tree,  air  and  water  are 
present  in  varying  quantities,  depending 
on  the  season  and  kind  of  wood.  The 
amount  of  water  is  frequently  as  much 
as  fifty  per  cent.  During  the  seasoning 
of  pine,  about  twenty  per  cent  of  water  is 
removed  from  the  wood.  This  may  be 
called  free  water,  because  it  exists  in  the 
plant  with  all  the  ordinary  properties  of 
water.  But  there  is  also  in  pine-wood 
about  the  same  amount  of  water,  which  is 
chemically  combined  with  carbon  to  form 
cellulose  and  lignin.  The  presence  of  this 
modified  water  may  be  demonstrated  by 
placing  the  wood  in  a  partially  closed  iron 
vessel,  and  heating  it  red  hot ;  the  wood 
is  reduced  to  charcoal,  while  water  is  given 
off,  together  with  a  small  quantity  of  gases,  oils,  and  other 
matters. 

The  elementary  composition  of  wood  varies  according  to 
the  kind,  the  soluble  matters  in  the  soil,  and  the  amount  of 
moisture  absorbed  by  the  tree.  Generally  wood  contains 
large  quantities  in  proportion  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxy- 
gen ;  less  of  nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  potassium ;  and  small 


FIG.  10.— Diagram  show- 
ing growth  of  the 
cell-wall. 

1.  Cambium-cell :  a,  pro- 

toplasm or  living  con- 
tents of  the  cell  ;  6, 
nucleus  in  the  proto- 
plasm ;  c,  thin  mem-, 
brane  through  which 
the  sap  passes.  In  the 
heart- wood  this  mem- 
brane has  broken 
down,  as  at  d. 

2.  Protoplasm  forming  a 

wall  of  cellulose. 

3.  Protoplasm  has  disap- 

peared. Cellulose 
changing  into  lignin. 

4.  Cell-wall  composed  of 

lignin  and  thin  mem- 
brane. 


BRANCHING    OF  STEMS. 


19 


quantities  of  iron,  phosphorus,  calcium,  sodium,  and  silicon, 
with  traces  of  many  other  elements. 

If  wood  is  burned  in  the  open  air,  the  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  sulphur,  and  part  of  the  oxygen  are  driven  off  in 
gaseous  form ;  the  other  elements  remain,  and  constitute  the 
ash,  of  which  the  principal  ingredient  is  potassium. 

The  amount  of  ash  is  greater  in  the  palms  and  least  in 
the  pines.  The  percentage  of  a  few  are  as  follows  : 


Oregon  pine 0'08 

Red  cedar 013 

Redwood 014 

Chestnut 018 

White  pine 019 

Whitewood..  .  0'23 


White  oak 0*41 

Hickory 073 

Black  walnut 079 

Palmetto 7'66 

Black  iron- wood 8 '31 

Spanish-bayonet _8'94 


BRANCHING  OF  STEMS. 

In  the  middle  of  a  forest,  trees  grow  straight,  tall,  and 
slender,  as  in  Fig.  12,  because  it  is  necessary  for  them  to 


Fio.  11. 


FIG.  12. 


FIG.  13. 


FIG.  11.— Shape  of  a  tree  on  the  border  of  a  forest,    a,  broken  branch  exposing  surfaces 

for  boring  insects  or  fungus  spores. 

FIG.  12. — Young  forest  tree.    b.  b,  branches  die  for  want  of  sunlight. 
FIG.  13.— Shape  of  forest  tree  with  straight  stem  and  crown  of  small  branches  and  leaves. 

push  up  the  tops  in  order  that  they  may  receive  sufficient 
sunlight,  to  enable  the  leaves  to  digest  the  plant-food  and 


20  EXERCISES  JN   WOOD-WORKING. 

increase  the  diameter  and  height  of  the  stem.  Lower  branch- 
es last  only  a  few  years,  then  die,  and  are  broken  off  (6,  Fig. 
12).  On  the  margins  of  the  forest  and  in  open  places,  trees 
send  out  numerous  branches,  and  stems  become  large  in  di- 
ameter, but  remain  short  (Fig.  11).  The  bordering  trees, 
while  they  serve  as  a  protection  from  the  wind  for  those  in- 
side, furnish  knotty  and  cross-grained  lumber  ;  those  inside 
produce  the  straight-grained  and  valuable  wood  (Fig.  13). 
Members  of  the  palm  group  rarely  have  branching  stems. 
In  growth,  the  stems  remain  long  and  slender,  but  frequently 
larger  at  the  top  than  at  the  base. 

AGE  OF  TREES. 

Like  animals,  in  growth  and  development  plants  are  sub- 
ject to  influences  of  climate  and  nourishment.  In  its  proper 
latitude,  and  with  an  abundance  of  water  and  food  in  the 
soil,  a  tree  adds  to  its  annual  growth  and  lives  to  a  great  age. 
But  when  the  soil  becomes  exhausted  of  the  necessary  ele- 
ments, or  a  more  robust  species  crowds  roots  and  leaves,  then 
a  tree  begins  to  show  signs  of  decay.  It  is  difficult  to  estab- 
lish rules  regarding  the  proper  age  for  cutting.  For  timber, 
most  trees  are  considered  fit  at  about  one  hundred  years,  al- 
though oak  may  furnish  excellent  timber  at  two  hundred 
years.  The  purpose  for  which  the  wood  is  to  be  cut  deter- 
mines the  proper  age.  Young  trees  show  a  closer  grain  and 
give  a  more  elastic  wood  than  old  ones.  Very  old  trees,  al- 
though apparently  sound,  are  found  to  be  partially  decayed 
in  the  middle  of  the  trunk,  so  that  the  elasticity  and  hard- 
ness of  the  wood  are  replaced  by  a  characteristic  brittleness. 

DECAY  OF  TREES. 

As  long  as  a  tree  is  in  a  healthy  condition,  its  top  or 
crown  retains  its  small  branches,  but  when  these  refuse  to 
send  forth  leaves,  and  break  off,  it  is  a  sign  of  decay,  and  the 
tree  should  be  cut  down  and  put  to  some  use  ;  for,  if  allowed 
to  stand,  its  decay,  aided  by  parasitic  insects,  will  proceed 
rapidly  until  there  remains  nothing  but  a  shell,  composed  of 
the  growing  zone  and  a  few  of  the  last  annual  rings,  and  its 


SEASON  FOR   CUTTING.  21 

value  for  any  purpose  will  become  very  much  lessened  or 
entirely  lost. 

Breaking  or  sawing  off  a  branch  and  leaving  the  wound 
exposed  will  furnish  an  opportunity  for  fungus  spores *or 
boring  insects  to  begin  the  destruction  of  the  wood. 

Cutting  down  trees  on  the  border  of  a  forest,  or  clearing 
a  large  space  within  it,  is  destructive  to  the  tall  trees  remain- 
ing exposed  to  the  winds  and  elements.  The  swaying  of  the 
stems  in  a  storm  causes  the  tender  root-hairs  to  be  broken 
off,  thus  preventing  absorption  of  sufficient  nourishment  by 
the  root,  and  shortening  the  life  of  the  tree. 

SEASON  FOR  CUTTING. 

The  proper  time  of  the  year  for  cutting  down  trees  is  an 
important  matter.  In  the  spring  and  late  summer  the  outer 
portion  of  the  wood  is  charged  with  elements  which  tend  to 
hasten  its  decay.  In  the  drier  summer  months  and  in  winter 
the  growing  and  conducting  cells  are  less  active  or  altogeth- 
er dormant,  and  better  wood  may  be  secured  if  cut  during 
those  times  of  the  year.  Oak  is  said  to  be  more  durable  if 
cut  just  after  the  leaves  have  fallen. 

The  trees  are  cut  with  axe  or  saw,  and  skill  is  required  to 
fell  a  tree  so  that  it  will  come  safely  to  the  ground,  and  not 
hang  suspended  to  neighboring  branches  or  crush  young 
trees  in  its  fall.  An  experienced  woodman  will  direct  the 
falling  tree  exactly  where  he  wishes.  He  cuts  on  the  side 
and  about  at  a  right  angle  to  the  direction  in  which  he  wish- 
es the  tree  to  fall ;  next  he  cuts  on  the  opposite  side,  and,  if 
necessary,  a  few  inches  higher. 

The  tree,  after  falling,  is  cleared  of  its  branches  and  sawed 
into  lengths,  according  to  the  future  use  of  the  wood. 

MILLING. 

If  near  a  stream,  the  logs  are  rolled  or  drawn  to  the  water 
and  floated  to  the  mill,  where  they  are  examined  and  grouped 
according  to  fitness  for  special  uses.  A  long  immersion  of 
the  logs  in  water  removes  soluble  substances  in  the  sap- 
wood,  but  is  said  to  injure  the  heart-wood  by  rendering  it 


22  EXERCISES  IN   WO  OJ)- WORKING. 

less  elastic.  Water,  however,  is  the  easiest  and  cheapest 
means  of  transporting  logs.  In  the  absence  of  an  available 
stream,  the  logs  are  carried  on  wagons  or  sleds  to  a  railway 
or  directly  to  the  mill. 

The  old-time  mill,  with  its  single  upright  saw  and  ancient 
water-wheel,  is  seldom  seen  nowadays  ;  it  has  given  way  to 
gang  and  circular  saws,  and  even  to  giant  band-saws,  run  by 
turbine  or  steam.  Frequently  portable  engines  and  saws  are 
employed  on  the  ground  where  the  trees  are  cut,  thus  saving 
the  transportation  of  the  waste  portions  of  the  logs. 

Logs  are  sawed  into  either  timber,  planks,  or  boards,  and 
these  constitute  lumber.  Timber  includes  all  of  the  largest 
sizes,  such  as  beams  and  joists.  Planks  are  wide,  of  varying 
lengths,  and  over  one  inch  in  thickness.  Boards  are  one  inch 
or  less  in  thickness,  and  of  varying  lengths  and  widths. 
Lumber  may  be  resawed  into  the  many  smaller  sizes  which 
are  to  be  found  in  the  seasoning  and  storing  yards. 

The  rough-sawed  lumber  may  be  planed  at  a  mill,  and  is 
then  called  dressed  lumber,  of  which  there  is  a  great  variety, 
adapted  to  almost  every  purpose  for  which  wood  is  used. 
Dressed  planks  and  boards  when  free  of  all  defects  are  called 
clear,  and  their  regular  sizes  are  f,  i,  1-J,  If,  and  If  inches, 
which  are  one  eighth  of  an  inch  less  in  thickness  than  sawed 
lumber.  One-half-inch  dressed  is  made  by  resawing  one-aiid- 
a-quarter-inch  lumber. 

DRYING  OF  WOOD. 

In  the  preparation  of  lumber  for  use,  it  is  necessary  to 
remove  its  moisture,  after  which  the  wood  is  seasoned.  The 
planks  and  boards  after  sawing  are  placed  in  large  square 
piles  in  the  open  air,  each  layer  separated  by  three  or  four 
narrow  strips  or  boards  laid  in  the  opposite  direction.  By 
this  means  a  free  circulation  of  air  takes  place  throughout 
the  pile ;  the  drying  is  gradual  and  thorough,  if  allowed  suf- 
ficient time.  For  ordinary  carpentry,  two  years  is  considered 
enough,  but  for  joinery  at  least  four  years  should  be  allotted 
to  the  seasoning.  Many  processes  have  been  devised  to 
hasten  the  evaporation — such  as  kiln-drying,  in  which  the 


WARPING.  23 

wood  is  placed  in  chambers  heated  by  steam  or  hot  air,  or 
by  the  employment  of  vacuum-pumps  together  with  heat. 
All  are  inferior,  however,  to  the  open-air  seasoning,  in  that 
they  cause  a  rapid  drying  of  the  surface  and  ends,  with  a 
slow  or  imperfect  drying  of  the  interior;  thus  impairing 
both  the  strength  and  elasticity  of  the  wood. 

It  is  difficult  to  give  rules  for  testing  wood  to  determine 
whether  'it  has  been  properly  seasoned  or  not.  One  way  is 
to  push  a  knife-blade  into  the  wood,  and  note  how  much  it 
sticks  when  withdrawn.  Another  is  to  cut  a  shaving  from 
the  board,  and  note  its  elasticity,  brittleness,  or  strength. 
Experienced  workmen  crush  shavings  in  their  hands  to  de- 
termine the  character  of  the  wood. 

As  the  wood  loses  its  water  it  shrinks  perceptibly,  much 
more  in  the  direction  of  the  annual  rings  than  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  medullary  rays,  and  very  little,  if  at  all,  in  the 
direction  of  the  fibers.  If  we  examine 
the  end  of  a  log  which  has  been  exposed 
to  the  weather,  we  will  find  cracks  ex- 
tending from  the  center  toward  the  cir- 
cumference, and  which  penetrate  from 
a  few  inches  to  a  foot  or  more  into  the 
log  (Fig.  14).  These  cracks,  called 
wind-checks,  are  seen  in  planks  and 
boards,  and  cause  the  ends  to  become 
waste  wood.  To  prevent  this  rapid  FlG  14._Endaof  oak.iog  ex- 
drying,  the  ends  of  the  logs  are  tarred  w°nddcheck7 ^  shake.'  a' 
or  painted.  If  the  lumber  is  piled  soon 

after  sawing,  these  wind-checks  are  smaller,  and  the  waste 
portion  is  consequently  less. 

WARPING. 

Because  of  the  unequal  shrinking  of  the  wood  in  drying, 
the  planks  and  boards  have  a  natural  tendency  to  warp  or  curl. 
Those  cut  farthest  from  the  center  of  the  log  warp  the  most, 
while  those  at  the  center  remain  nearly  flat.  Lumber  sea- 
soned under  pressure,  such  as  that  exerted  in  the  pile  in  the 
open  air,  dries  straight  and  true ;  but,  if  it  should  be  resawed 


a 


EXERCISES  IN    WOOD-WORKING. 


into  boards  of  half  the  thickness,  it  will  require  further  sea- 
soning to  avoid  warping.    This  tendency  to  warp  is  sometimes 

seen  in  very  old  wood ; 
for  instance,  in  planing 
down  an  old  mahogany 
table  -  top  to  remove 
scratches,  what  was  per- 
fectly straight  '  and  flat 
before  now  warps  and 
twists  to  a  remarkable 
degree.  This  shows  the 
construction,  lumber  of  the  same 


FIG. 


15.— Warping  of  planks  cut  from  an  unsea- 
soned log. 


necessity  of   using,  in 

thickness  in  which  it  has  been  seasoned. 

Another  cause  which  changes  the  shape  of  wood  is  its  tend- 
ency to  absorb  moisture,  either  from  the  air  or  the  ground. 
This  makes  it  necessary  to  protect  exposed  surfaces  with  paint 
or  varnish.  Pieces  of  work,  in  process  of  construction,  should 
stand  endwise  and  not  lie  on  the  floor,  even  if  it  seems  per- 
fectly dry.  Lumber  in  the  workshop  is  kept  in  racks  hang- 
ing from  the  ceiling.  These  racks  are  so  arranged  as  to  allow 
the  boards  to  rest  on  one  edge,  and  to  be  separated  by  vertical 
strips.  In  this  manner  the  boards  are  easily  accessible,  and 
the  seasoning  process  is  continued  by  the  warmth  of  the  room. 

PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD. 

Grain. — We  have  seen  that  wood  is  composed  of  long,  hol- 
low wood  cells,  or  fibers,  sometimes  accompanied  by  vessels 
of  varying  diameters.  The  character  and  direction  of  these 
fibers  constitute  what  is  termed  the  grain  of  the  wood.  As 
these  fibers  separate  and  break  more  easily  lengthwise  than 
across,  we  say  that  wood  splits  with  the  grain.  If  the  fibers 
run  very  straight,  the  wood  is  straight-grained;  if  crooked, 
then  it  is  called  cross-grained.  Many  causes  affect  the  regu- 
larity of  the  grain :  the  stem  itself  may  be  crooked,  it  may 
be  straight,  but  the  fibers  run  spirally  around  it,  or  there  may 
be  sets  of  fibers  alternating  in  spiral  directions ;  branches  and 
wounds  also  cause  cross-grain. 

If  the  cells'  are  small  and  compact,  the  grain  is  said  to  be 


PROPERTIES  OF   WOOD.  25 

fine,  as  in  box-wood ;  if  nearly  uniform  in  size  and  thickness, 
the  wood  is  even-grained,  as  in  maple.  The  cells  may  vary 
greatly  in  size  and  thickness,  and  have  large  vessels  in  the 
spring  growth,  which  would  give  rise  to  coarse-grained  wood, 
as  in  the  oak,  ash,  and  chestnut. 

The  appearance  given  by  the  annual  rings  and  medullary 
rays  to  the  surface  of  the  wood  differs  very  much  with  the 
kind  of  wood  and  the  part  of  the  log  from  which  the  board 
is  sawed.  Special  cuts  are  made  to  obtain  the  best  effect  of 
these  markings.  To  show  silver-grain,  the  face  of  the  board 
should  be  parallel,  or  nearly  so,  with  the  medullary  rays. 
The  birch  is  an  excellent  example  of  this  effect.  Maple  and 
ash  are  frequently  seen  with  a  wavy  or  curled  grain.  For 
veneers,  which  are  about  one  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness, wood  with  a  very  irregular  grain  is  selected,  such  as 
walnut  roots  and  knots,  and  knurls  of  mahogany.  In  some 
old  maple-trees  an  appearance  called  bird's-eye,  due  to  a  small 
circular  inflection  of  the  fibers,  gives  to  the  wood  a  fine  effect. 

Woods  in  which  the  grain  runs  alternately  in  different 
directions,  though  hard  to  split  and  very  difficult  to  work 
and  finish,  usually  furnish  an  ornamented  grain,  such  as 
mahogany. 

Density. — This  property  depends  on  the  more  or  less  com- 
plete thickening  of  the  walls  of  the  wood-cells,  and  also  upon 
the  number  and  size  of  the  vessels.  Certain  operations,  such 
as  turning,  carving,  and  wood-engraving  require  dense  or 
close-grained  woods. 

Porosity. — A  porous  wood  has  large,  thin- walled  cells  and 
many  open  vessels.  Its  open  grain  is  easily  filled  with  pre- 
serving liquids  which  adapts  it  for  framing  and  timber  work 
generally ;  if  such  a  wood  is  to  be  finished,  the  pores  must  be 
filled  before  a  good  surface  can  be  obtained.  As  a  rule,  porous 
woods  are  soft  and  light,  while  dense  woods  are,  hard  and 
heavy. 

Weight  and  Hardness. — It  sometimes  happens  that  the  en- 
tire cell  is  replaced  by  the  thickened  cell-wall,  and  this,  to- 
gether with  deposits  of  oily  and  resinous  substances,  make 
an  exceedingly  hard  and  heavy  wood.  On  the  contrary,  we 


26  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

have  very  light  woods,  even  lighter  than  cork ;  these  are 
composed  of  thin-walled  cells  filled  with  air.  Between  these 
extremes  are  found  many  gradations  of  weight  and  hardness, 
but  woods  are  generally  spoken  of  as  hard  or  soft,  and  heavy 
or  light.  The  hard  and  heavy  woods  are  stronger  and  more 
durable  than  the  softer  and  lighter  ones. 

The  weight  is  expressed  by  a  number,  which  shows  the 
weight  of  the  wood  compared  with  the  weight  of  an  equal 
bulk  of  water,  taken  as  the  standard. 

During  the  process  of  drying,  wood  becomes  lighter  and 
harder ;  thus,  lignum-vitse  and  most  of  the  palms  are  quite 
soft  and  easily  cut  when  green,  but  after  drying  are  worked 
with  great  difficulty. 

Strength. — The  strength  of  wood  depends  on  peculiar  pow- 
ers of  resisting  various  forces  brought  to  bear  upon  it.  Thus, 
iignum-vitse  and  the  oaks  are  noted  for  their  stiffness,  or 
resistance  to  bending,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  interlac- 
ing of  their  fibers.  Young  hickory,  lance-wood,  and  others 
are  very  elastic,  bending  readily  and  returning  to  their  former 
position  without  injury  to  the  structure.  Black  or  swamp 
ash  and  young  white  oak  split  easily  into  long  and  strong- 
strips  or  bands  such  as  those  used  for  making  chair-seats  or 
baskets.  Very  little  force  is  required  to  break  the  fibers  of 
whitewood,  birch,  and  mahogany  across  the  grain.  Pine, 
ash,  and  maple  break  easily  but  with  a  splintered  fracture. 
In  some  palms  this  splintering  occurs  to  such  a  degree,  that 
walking-sticks  may  be  transformed  into  very  dangerous 
weapons,  which  has  given  rise  to  laws  in  some  countries  re- 
stricting their  use.  Rattan,  oak,  and  hickory,  when  bent 
short,  have  the  individual  fibers  unbroken,  but  separated 
from  each  other ;  and  are  therefore  tough  woods.  Hard  and 
dense  woods  resist  compression,  while  soft  woods  yield  to 
pressure  and  are  indented ;  and  more  so  when  the  pressure 
is  applied  on  the  sides  than  on  the  ends  of  the  fibers.  This 
compressibility  of  the  softer  woods  is  taken  advantage  of  in 
gluing  up  joints,  where  the  pieces  are  forced  into  perfect 
contact  by  the  pressure  of  the  screws.  To  secure  a  good 
joint  with  hard  woods  it  is  necessary  to  use  the  greatest  care 


PROPERTIES  OF  WOOD.  27 

in  preparing  and  cutting  the  pieces.  The  cohesion  of  the 
particles  of  the  fibers,  when  strains  are  applied  lengthwise, 
is  very  great,  several  tons  being  required  to  fracture  pine 
one  inch  square. 

Color. — As  the  heart-wood  becomes  lignified,  coloring- 
matters  are  deposited  within  the  substance  of  the  cell-wall, 
giving  to  each  kind  its  characteristic  colors ;  these  are  ex- 
hibited in  great  variety,  including  every  shade  of  color  be- 
tween the  white  of  satin-wood  and  the  black  of  ebony.  In 
the  same  wood  there  may  be  variations  of  tint,  or  even  color, 
in  the  annual  rings  and  medullary  rays,  enhancing  the  beauty 
of  its  appearance.  The  sap-wood  receives  none  of  the  color- 
pigments,  and  therefore  is  always  light  or  even  white.  As 
a  rule,  exposed  surfaces,  whether  varnished  or  not,  become 
darker ;  and  this  darkening,  besides  indicating  age,  gives  to 
the  surface  a  more  agreeable  effect  than  that  of  new  wood. 
It  is  for  this  reason,  as  well  as  deception,  that  new  cabinet- 
work of  hard  wood  is  stained  to  imitate  the  effects  of  age. 
Color  combined  with  a  figured  grain  constitutes  the  intrinsic 
ornament  of  wood. 

Durability. — At  great  age  a  slow  oxidation  of  the  constitu- 
ents of  the  cell- wall  takes  place  in  the  interior  of  the  heart- 
wood  of  standing  trees,  thus  rendering  the  wood  softer  and 
brittle,  and  an  easy  prey  to  the  fungi  and  insects.  Dampness, 
by  promoting  fungus  growths,  is  very  destructive  to  cut 
timber,  few  woods  withstanding  its  injurious  influence; 
especially  is  this  so  when  there  are  alternating  dampness  and 
dryness  as  seen  in  those  portions  of  a  building  or  structure 
in  contact  with  the  soil.  Most  woods  if  kept  dry  and  pro- 
tected from  insects  with 'paint  or  varnish,  will  last  for  ages,  as 
illustrated  by  ancient  pieces  of  furniture.  Nearly  all  woods 
are  perfectly  preserved  if  kept  immersed  in  water,  which  is 
shown  by  the  wood  of  vessels  that  have  been  sunk  for  a  hun- 
dred years  or  more,  and  which  finds  application  in  laying  the 
foundations  of  stone  for  large  buildings  and  bridges  upon 
the  tops  of  piles  driven  below  the  water-mark.  Many  woods 
like  cedar  and  camphor-wood  have  within  their  substance  oils 
and  resins  which  protect  them  from  the  fungi  and  insect  life. 


28 


EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING, 


DEFECTS  IN  WOOD. 

Some  of  the  defects  found  in  lumber,  as  wind-checks, 
cross-grain,  warping,  and  improper  seasoning,  have  already 
been  alluded  to.  Wood  may  be  shaky  (6,  Fig.  14),  which  is  a 
separation  of  the  annual  rings,  showing  checks  or  splits, 
sometimes  including  nearly  all  of  the  central  portion  and 
extending  throughout  the  length  of  the  stem.  No  wood  fur- 
nishes a  better  example  of  this  than  hemlock.  This  shaky 
condition  is  caused  by  the  swaying  from  the  force  of  wind, 
acting  upon  trees  in  open  places,  along  the  borders  of  forests, 
and  especially  those  adjoining  cleared  tracts. 

Knots  in  the  wood  are  imperfections  arising  from  the  de- 
flection of  the  fibers  which  form  branches.  Near  the  center 
of  the  stem  the  fibers  are  few  and  the  knot  -  small,  but  as  the 
stem  enlarges  in  size  the'  number  of  fibers  in  the  branch 
increases  so  that  at  the  circumference  of  the  stem  the  knots 
are  largest.  The  great  strength  required  at  the  union  of 
branch  and  stem  is  shown  by  the  superi- 
or hardness  and  density  of  the  wood 
composing  the  knot.  Dead  branches 
b  give  rise  to  loose  and  dark-colored  knots 
(Fig.  16,  6),  and  the  fibers  ©f  the  stem 
that  form  afterward  bend  around  the 
branch,  continue  up  the  stem,  and  pro- 
duce cross-grained  wood  in  the  vicinity 
of  the  knot.  Fast  knots  are  the  result 
of  living  branches,  and  boards  contain- 
ing them  may  be  used  wherever  strength 
or  finish  is  not  required. 

Sap-wood. — The  edges  of  boards  fre- 
quently retain  a  portion  of  the  sap-wood,  which  must  not  be 
placed  in  any  permanent  structure,  because  of  its  softness 
and  tendency  to  induce  decay. 

Resin-pockets  are  spaces  between  the  annual  rings  of  pine 
timber,  filled  completely  or  in  part  with  resin.  These  slightly 
weaken  the  board,  and  if  used  in  any  portion  of  a  building 
exposed  to  the  warmth  of  the  sun,  will  exude  drops  of 


FIG.  16.— Knots,     a,  fast 
6,  loose. 


MEASURE  AND    VALUE   OF   WOOD.  39 

• 

turpentine,   even  if  the   surface  has  been  painted  or  var- 
nished. 

Decay. — Of  all  the  defects  in  wood,  decay  or  rot  is  at  once 
the  most  prevalent  and  disastrous  to  the  strength  and  use- 
fulness of  the  material,  and,  when  begun,  will  continue  until 
the  whole  of  the  wood  is  consumed. 

Defects  in  milling  are  frequent.  Lumber  may  be  uneven 
in  width  or  thickness.  The  saw  may  have  torn  out  fibers  in 
places,  or  have  cut  irregularly,  so  that,  in  planing  the  boards, 
marks  of  the  saw  remain.  When  the  edges  of  boards  are 
not  squared,  they  are  termed  wany. 

MEASURE  AND  VALUE  OF  WOOD. 

Timber  and  lumber  one  inch  or  more  in  thickness  arc 
sold  by  the  square  foot,  meaning  one  foot  square  by  one  inch 
thick,  or  containing  one  hundred  and  forty-four  cubic  inches. 
Boards  less  than  one  inch  in  thickness,  and  veneers,  are  sold 
by  the  square  foot,  face  measure.  Lumber  which  is  finished 
at  the  mills  for  special  purposes  may  be  sold  by  the  running 
foot,  or  length  in  feet,  as  moldings ;  or  by  the  piece,  as  fence- 
boards,  studs,  and  many  kinds  cut  to  standard  sizes.  A  few 
are  sold  in  quantity,  as  fence-pickets,  laths,  or  a  bundle  of 
shingles,  intended  to  cover  a  certain  area.  Many  of  the  more 
expensive  and  fancy  woods,  such  as  lignum-vitse  and  box- 
wood, are  sold  by  the  pound. 

Values  of  wood  vary  with  supply  and  demand  as  well 
as  with  quality  and  appearance.  Durability  and  a  figured 
grain  are  especially  sought  for.  Fashion  also,  in  dictating 
the  material  as  well  as  the  style,  determines  the  demand  for 
the  hard  woods,  particularly  those  used  for  furniture  and 
the  interior  wood- work  of  houses.  Thus  we  find  a  succession 
of  favorites,  each  of  which,  after  serving  a  few  years  of  pre- 
ferment, has  been  set  aside  to  make  room  for  the  next.  Be- 
ginning with  mahogany  and  rose-wood,  we  note  black  walnut, 
ash,  ebony  and  its  imitations,  and  again  mahogany,  as  having 
been  the  choice,  until  at  the  present  day,  oak,  neglected  for 
many  years,  is  the  leading  wood. 


30  EXERCISES  IN    WOOD-WORKING. 

• 

KINDS  OF  WOOD. 

In  this  list  are  given  the  woods  commonly  used  by  car- 
penters and  joiners,  together  with  their  chief  characteristics. 

Pine  Group. 

White  Pine,  commonly  called  pine,  is  a  rapidly  growing 
tree  in  the  Northern  United  States  and  in  Canada.  It  attains 
a  large  size  in  favorable  soils,  and  furnishes  a  light,  soft,  not 
strong  wood,  with  a  close  and  straight  grain.  The  annual 
rings  are  marked  by  narrow  summer  growths,  and  the  me- 
dullary rays  are  very  fine  and  numerous.  The  color  is  a  faint 
yellowish  brown,  darkening  with  exposure.  Its  abundance, 
the  ease  with  which  it  is  worked,  and  its  power  to  hold  glue, 
make  its  use  very  extensive,  especially  in  all  carpentry-work 
where  an  easily  finished  wood  is  desired.  It  is  one  of  the 
best  woods  for  making  patterns  for  casting. 

Georgia  Pine,  of  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  States,  is  a 
large  forest  tree  with  smaller  annual  rings  than  pine,  and 
with  a  broad,  dense,  resinous,  and  dark-colored  summer 
growth,  which  gives  to  the  wood  a  well-marked  grain.  In 
radial  section  the  numerous  and  fine  medullary  rays  are 
scarcely  visible.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  and  dura- 
ble, becoming  harder  and  somewhat  brittle  with  age.  It  is 
used  for  heavy  timbers,  floors,  and,  because  of  its  grain, 
sometimes  as  a  trimming  wood. 

The  many  other  species  of  pine  have  local  or  limited  use. 
Among  them  the  yellow  or  Jersey  pine  is  perhaps  the  best 
known,  as  it  is  largely  manufactured  into  lumber.  Its  prop- 
erties are  about  intermediate  between  white  and  Georgia 
pine 

Black  Spruce  grows  in  about  the  same  regions  as  white 
pine,  and  furnishes  a  wood  very  similar  to  it,  excepting 
that  it  is  more  resinous.  This  and  white  spruce  are  com- 
monly called  spruce,  and  are  used  extensively  for  inferior 
work. 

Hemlock. — A  species  similar  to  spruce,  grows  in  the  North- 
ern States.  Its  wood,  which  splits  or  breaks  easily,  is  light, 


KINDS  OF    WOOD.  31 

moderately  soft,  has  a  coarse,  uneven  grain,  and  is  frequently 
shaky.  It  holds  a  nail  much  better  than  pine,  which  fits  it 
for  rougher  building  material. 

White  Cedar. — Abundant  in  the  Atlantic  States,  supply- 
ing a  soft,  light,  fine-grained,  and  durable  wood,  suited 
for  a  variety  of  purposes  where  durability  rather  than 
strength  is  required.  The  annual  growth  is  of  moderate 
size,  made  up  of  very  small  wood-cells,  traversed  by  exceed- 
ingly fine  and  numerous  medullary  rays.  It  is  used  in 
boat  -  building,  cabinet  -  work,  cooperage,  cigar  -  boxes,  and 
shingles. 

Red  Cedar  is  a  small  tree  of  slow  growth,  widely  distrib- 
uted in  various  soils,  usually  rocky,  but  reaching  its  largest 
size  in  swamps.  The  wood  is  like  white  cedar,  but  more 
compact,  even-grained,  and  durable.  It  is  reddish-brown  in 
color  and  extensively  used  in  cabinet-work,  because  of  its 
strong  odor,  which  repels  insects.  Its  durability  makes  it 
valuable  for  posts,  sills,  and  other  structures  in  contact  with 
or  near  the  ground. 

Cypress. — This  tree  of  the  Southern  swamps  grows  to  a 
great  size.  It  furnishes  a  most  valuable  wood,  because  of  its 
durability,  which  is  claimed  to  be  superior  to  that  of  all 
other  woods.  It  is  light  brown  in  color,  and  in  structure 
similar  to  white  cedar,  with  larger  wood-cells.  Its  timber  is 
preferable  to  pine  in  trimming  brick  houses,  and  in  all  parts 
exposed  to  the  weather.  In  the  South  its  employment  is  as 
general  as  that  of  pine  in  the  North. 

Redwood. — Of  late  years  the  wood  of  the  giant  fir-trees  of 
California  has  been  introduced  into  the  chief  lumber  mar- 
kets of  the  country.  The  wood-cells  are  large,  the  compact 
summer  growth  constituting  about  one  quarter  of  the 
annual  increase.  The  color  is  a  dull  red,  the  quality  very 
durable,  while  the  wood  shrinks  perceptibly  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  grain.  In  other  respects  this  wood  resembles 
pine,  and  is  used  for  general  construction  as  well  as  orna- 
mentation. 


32  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

Palm  Group. 

While  in  many  tropical  countries  the  palms  supply  the 
inhabitants  with  many  necessities,  as  building-woods,  starch, 
sugar,  fruits,  fibers  for  ropes  and  cloth ;  in  temperate  cli- 
mates the  abundance  of  better  material  limits  the  use  of  the 
palm  group. 

Palms. — The  numerous  kinds  differ  in  height,  diameter, 
and  structure.  The  fibro-vascular  bundles  vary  in  size  and 
number,  are  exceedingly  hard,  and  the  surrounding  pith 
either  soft  or  very  hard  and  solid  at  the  outside  and  soft  with 
few  bundles  on  the  inside.  Usually  the  wood  cuts  easily 
when  green,  but  only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  when  dry. 
Besides  the  use  of  the  palmetto  for  wharf -piles,  some  of  the 
palms  are  combined  in  cabinet-work,  and  used  for  canes  and 
handles. 

Rattan.  —  A  long,  slender,  trailing  palm,  furnishing  a 
tough,  flexible  material,  which  enters  largely  into  the  manu- 
facture of  furniture. 

Bamboo. — A  gigantic  member  of  the  grass  family,  grows 
in  the  tropical  regions  of  America  and  Asia,  and  has  a  lim- 
ited use  in  cabinet-work.  Its  hollow,  jointed  stem,  adapts  it 
to  many  inferior  uses,  such  as  canes  and  handles,  and  when 
split  and  joined  in  a  peculiar  way  forms  the  much-prized 
fishing-rods. 

Oak  Group. 

Birch. — Among  the  many  species  of  birch,  the  cherry  or 
black  birch  supplies  the  best  lumber.  The  wood  is  heavy 
and  strong,  colored  brownish-red,  with  a  fine,  compact,  and 
evenly  marked  grain,,  due  to  the  absence  of  many  vessels  in 
the  annual  rings,  and  has  very  small  but  visible  medullary 
rays.  It  is  used  in  ship-building,  turning,  and  extensively  in 
cheap  furniture. 

White  Oak  is  the  standard  by  which  the  strength,  dura- 
bility, hardness,  and  other  qualities  of  the  various  woods  are 
compared.  It  is  distributed  generally  throughout  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  United  States,  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  fur- 
nishes superior  timber.  Large  vessels  in  the  spring  growth 
occupy  from  one  third  to  one  half  of  the  narrow  an- 


KINDS  OF  WOOD.  33 

nual  rings.  The  medullary  rays  are  large,  thick,  and  ex- 
ceedingly hard.  The  wood  is  heavy,  hard,  strong,  diffi- 
cult to  split  radially,  coarse-grained,  and  colored  a  light 
brown.  It  is  used  in  structures  requiring  great  strength, 
and  especially  in  ship-building,  cooperage,  and  carriage-mak> 
ing. 

Red  Oak. — A  very  large  forest  tree  of  the  United  States. 
It  furnishes  a  heavy,  hard,  and  strong  wood,  with  a  very 
coarse  grain,  due  to  a  large  number  of  vessels  of  uniform 
size  crowded  into  the  first  half  of  the  annual  growth,  and 
also  to  the  large  and  thick  medullary  rays.  The  wood  is 
reddish  brown,  durable,  and  used  extensively  for  furniture 
and  cabinet-work  generally. 

Chestnut. — A  very  large  forest  tree  common  in  the  Atlan- 
tic States,  having  a  characteristic  coarse-grained  wood.  The 
annual  growth  is  considerable,  frequently  over  half  an  inch, 
in  which  the  vessels  are  numerous,  large  in  the  spring  wood,, 
but  gradually  becoming  smaller  toward  the  summer  growth. 
The  medullary  rays  are  small  and  indistinct.  The  wood  is, 
light,  moderately  soft,  breaks  and  splits  easily,  is  remarkably 
durable  exposed  to  the  weather  and  not  in  contact  with  the 
soil..  The  tree  reaches  its  best  condition  at  about  fifty  years 
of  age,  after  which  it  is  very  liable  to  decay  in  the  middle  of 
the  heart-wood.  It  is  well  adapted  for  the  coarser  parts  of  a-, 
building,  is  used  to  a  small  extent  in  cabinet-work,  and  ex- 
tensively for  out-of-door  structures. 

Beech. — A  large  forest  tree  growing  generally  east  of  the 
Mississippi,  provides  a  heavy,  hard,  and  strong  wood.  It, 
has  a  fine,  even  grain,  is  of  a  light  color,  and  has  large  me- 
dullary rays.  It  is  used  to  a  limited  extent  for  furniture, 
but  more  for  implements,  especially  plane-stocks. 

Black  Walnut  is  one  of  our  finest  and  largest  timber-trees, 
growing  in  the  central  and  eastern  portions  of  the  United 
States.  It  furnishes  long,  wide  planks  and  boards  of  supe- 
rior qualities.  The  wood  is  moderately  heavy  and  hard, 
dark,  porous,  and  marked  by  a  beautiful  grain.  It  is  strong, 
durable,  and  not  liable  to  the  attacks  of  insects.  The  annual 
rings  contain  many  vessels,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  ex- 


34:  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

ceedingly  small.  At  one  time  it  was  the  favorite  wood,  and 
extensively  used  for  internal  decoration  and  fancy-work. 
It  is  still  largely  used  combined  with  veneers  from  roots  and 
knurls  of  European  varieties.  Gun-stocks  are  almost  exclu- 
sively made  of  walnut. 

Butternut  is  a  small  species  of  walnut,  giving  a  light  and 
soft  wood,  with  a  well-marked  grain.  Its  lumber  is  short  in 
length,  not  liable  to  split,  noted  for  its  resistance  to  heat  and 
moisture,  and  the  ease  with  which  it  receives  paint  or  polish. 
It  is  used  in  cabinet-work. 

Hickory  is  a  tree  of  branching  habit,  found  commonly  in 
the  United  States.  Its  wood  is  heavy,  tough,  very  strong,  and 
usually  cut  into  planks.  The  annual  rings  are  indistinct 
and  crowded  with  fine  vessels,  or  marked  by  a  narrow  zone 
of  larger  vessels.  The  medullary  rays  are  very  broad,  nu- 
merous, and  distinct.  The  flexibility  and  toughness  of  the 
wood  cause  it  to  be  extensively  used  in  the  construction  of 
implements,  tools,  carriages,  etc.  Difficulty  of  working  and 
liability  to  the  attacks  of  boring  insects  prevent  its  use  in 
building. 

Buttonwood,  or  sycamore,  is  the  largest  tree  of  the  oak 
group  in  the  United  States.  It  furnishes  a  heavy,  hard,  light- 
brown  wood,  with  a  fine,  close  grain.  It  is  readily  polished, 
easily  broken,  and  difficult  to  work.  Throughout  its  an- 
nual rings  are  small  vessels,  very  numerous  in  the  spring 
growth.  The  medullary  rays  are  numerous  and  thick,  and 
give  to  the  radial  section  a  silver  grain  similar  to  that  of 
beech  but  more  strongly  marked.  The  great  liability  of  the 
wood  to  decay,  and  its  tendency  to  warp,  restrict  its  use  to 
structures  thoroughly  protected  from  the  atmosphere  and 
moisture. 

Ash. — A  large  tree  growing  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 
United  States,  furnishes  a  moderately  heavy,  hard,  strong, 
and  very  elastic  wood.  The  annual  rings  are  compact,  with 
large  vessels  in  the  spring  growth.  The  medullary  rays  are 
numerous,  small,  and  thin.  The  wood  is  coarse-grained, 
light  brown,  and  extensively  used  for  implements  and  ma- 
chinery, for  furniture  and  cabinet-work.  -Its  liability  to 


KINDS  OF  WOOD.  35 

decay,  and  its  brittleness  with,  age,  prevent  its  use  in  heavy 
work. 

Apple. — The  reddish-colored  wood  of  the  familiar  fruit 
tree,  is  moderately  heavy. and  hard,  has  a  very  compact 
and  fine  grain.  The  annual  rings  are  narrow  with  small 
vessels,  and  the  medullary  rays  are  very  fine  and  crowded. 
The  wood  is  preferred  for  tool-handles,  turnery,  and  smok- 
ing-pipes. 

Pear. — In  structure  the  wood  of  the  pear-tree  is  similar  to 
that  of  the  apple.  It  becomes  hard  and  dense  when  dry, 
and  yields  readily  to  edge  tools.  Its  almost  grainless  charac- 
ter adapts  it  for  a  variety  of  purposes,  particularly  carving 
and  the  coarsest  kinds  of  wood-engraving. 

Wild  Cherry. — A  tree  common  in  the  United  States,  fur- 
nishes a  moderately  heavy,  hard,  and  durable  wood.  The 
annual  rings  are  wide  and  evenly  filled  with  small  vessels. 
The  medullary  rays  are  fine,  crowded,  and  light  red  in  color. 
The  grain  is  fine  and  close,  and  the  wood  easily  polished.  It 
is  brownish  red  in  color,  and  used  extensively  for  cabinet- 
work. After  several  years  the  wood  becomes  very  brittle. 

Locust. — One  of  the  largest  forest  trees,  growing  generally 
throughout  the  United  States.  Its  hard,  yellowish  wood  is 
composed  of  very  wide  annual  layers,  in  which  there  are 
comparatively  few  and  large  vessels  arranged  in  rows.  The 
medullary  rays  are  well  marked  and  numerous.  Although  it 
polishes  readily,  it  is  used  only  to  a  small  extent  in  cabinet- 
work, but  finds  a  demand  in  exposed  structures,  where  great 
durability  is  necessary,  as  in  ship-building,  supports  for 
buildings,  posts,  etc.  Its  hardness,  which  increases  after 
manufacture,  makes  it  a  favorite  with  turners. 

Sugar-Maple  is  a  timber-tree  of  large  size,  growing  in  the 
northern  parts  of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada,  which, 
besides  furnishing  a  sap  rich  in  sugar,  gives  a  light-colored, 
fine-grained,  hard,  strong,  and  heavy  wood.  Its  annual  growth 
is  narrow,  with  small  vessels  scattered  through  it.  The  medul- 
lary rays  are  small  and  distinct,  giving  to  the  radial  surface 
a  well-marked  silver  grain.  In  the  older  trees,  wavy  or  curled 
grain,  or  the  inflection  called  bird's-eye,  may  appear,  enhanc 


36  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

ing  the  beauty  and  increasing  the  value  of  the  wood.  Were 
it  not  for  its  want  of  durability,  its  hardness  and  handsome, 
silky  grain  would  make  it  our  most  valuable  wood.  It  is 
used  for  a  great  variety  of  purposes — building,  implements, 
machine-frames,  work-benches,  furniture,  fancy-work,  and 
turnery.  Curled  and  bird's-eye-  maples  are  frequently  sawed 
into  veneers. 

Mahogany. — A  native  tree  of  the  West  Indies  and  Central 
America.  It  is  a  very  large  and  most  valuable  tree,  furnish- 
ing a  durable  and  handsomely  marked  wood.  Its  color  varies 
from  yellowish  to  reddish  brown ;  its  hardness  from  a  mod- 
erately to  an  exceedingly  hard  wood ;  and  its  grain  from 
straight  to  the  most  crooked  contortions.  The  annual  rings 
are  large,  and  contain  a  few  large,  scattered  vessels.  The 
medullary  rays  are  very  fine  and  crowded.  A  peculiarity  in 
the  growth  of  mahogany  is  the  alternating  obliquity  of  the 
fibers  of  one  annual  layer  to  those  adjoining ;  this  is  some- 
times over  ninety  degrees  between  fibers  four  or  five  layers 
apart.  The  straight-grained  varieties  have  little  tendency  to 
warp,  but  the  cross-grained  ones  warp  and  twist  to  a  remark- 
able degree.  The  wood  is  used  for  many  purposes — machine- 
frames,  work-benches,  all  kinds  of  furniture,  cabinet-work, 
interior  finish  of  dwellings,  and  patterns. 

Lignum-vitae. — A  West  India  wood,  exceedingly  heavy  and 
hard.  The  annual  rings  are  almost  solid,  containing  a  few 
small  and  scattered  vessels.  The  medullary  rays  are  very 
numerous,  but  difficult  to  make  out.  The  wood  is  very  resin- 
ous, hard  to  split  because  of  the  obliquity  of  the  fibers  of  the 
annual  layers,  and  dark  brown  in  color ;  it  is  soapy  to  the 
touch ;  is  used  for  small  tools,  bowls,  and  in  turnery ;  and  is 
well  adapted  for  block-pulleys. 

Basswood  is  a  large  tree  growing  generally  throughout 
the  Northern  United  States  and  Canada.  It  furnishes  a  light, 
soft  wood,  with  the  general  appearance  of  pine.  The  annual 
layers  are  filled  with  very  small  vessels,  the  medullary  rays 
numerous  and  distinctly  seen  in  radial  sections.  Though 
not  strong,  the  wood  is  difficult  to  split,  and  has  a  great  tend- 
ency to  warp.  It  may  be  easily  bent,  thus  adapting  it  to  a 


KINDS  OF  WOOD.  37 

variety  of  uses,  especially  the  curved  panels  of  carriages  and 
sleighs. 

Whitewood  is  the  wood  of  the  tulip-tree,  a  large,  straight- 
stemmed  forest  tree,  growing  in  most  of  the  United  States. 
The  wood  is  light,  soft,  breaks  easily  without  splintering, 
does  not  split  with  the  grain  when  dry,  shrinks  excessively 
in  drying,  and  is  very  liable  to  warp  and  twist.  The  annual 
rings  are  very  large,  with  numerous  small  vessels  through- 
out, giving  a  fine  grain.  The  medullary  rays  are  very  nu- 
merous and  distinct.  The  cheapness,  ease  with  which  it  is 
worked,  and  large  size  of  its  boards,  cause  the  wood  to  be 
used  in  carpentry  and  cabinet-work  in  many  places  where 
pine  is  better  suited. 

Rosewood. — The  wood  of  several  foreign  trees  growing  in 
Brazil,  Canary  Islands,  Siam,  and  other  places.  The  annual 
rings  are  narrow,  almost  solid  with  resinous  materials,  and 
with  a  few  very  large,  scattered  vessels.  The  medullary  rays 
are  very  fine  but  perceptible  on  the  smoothed  surface.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  hard,  brittle,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  has  a 
characteristic  odor  and  taste.  The  grain  is  remarkably  hand- 
some, those  kinds  with  alternating  dark-brown  and  red  mark- 
ings being  most  prized.  Besides  tool -handles  few  things  are 
made  of  the  solid  wood ;  it  is  sawed  into  veneers  which  are 
extensively  used  in  cabinet-work. 

Boxwood. — A  tree  growing  in  Southern  Europe  and  Asia, 
furnishes  a  heavy,  hard  wood  with  a  peculiarly  even,  almost 
structureless  grain.  The  annual  rings  are  very  narrow,  with 
many  small,  scattered  vessels.  The  medullary  rays  are  very 
fine  and  numerous.  Boxwood  is  yellowish  in  color,  and  is 
used  for  many  purposes — in  turning,  model-making,  and 
particularly  in  wood-engraving,  in  which  it  has  no  equal. 

Ebony. — A  dark,  sometimes  jet-black  wood,  from  several 
foreign  countries,  the  best  coming  from  the  Mauritius.  The 
wood  is  heavy,  hard,  very  strong,  with  an  almost  solid  annual 
growth,  in  which  there  are  very  few  open  vessels.  The  me- 
dullary rays  are  very  fine,  but  visible.  It  has  an  astringent 
taste,  takes  a  high  polish,  and  is  used  for  many  small  articles, 
in  turnery,  and,  in  cabinet-work. 


38  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

Table  of  Woods,  with  their  Chief  Qualities  compared  by  Simple  Numbers. 


COMMON  NAME. 

Scientific  name. 

Weight. 
Water  = 
1-00. 

Hard- 
ness. 

Bend- 
ing. 

Break- 
ing. 

White  Pine 

Pinus  strobus   , 

•39 

1 

5 

3 

Georgia  Pine 

P  palustris  

•70 

4 

10 

9 

Black  Spruce 

Picea  nigra  

•46 

1 

7 

4 

Hemlock 

Tsuga  Canadensis 

•42 

2 

5 

4 

White  Cedar. 
Red  Cedar 

Chamcecyparis  sphceroidea.  . 
Juniperus  Virginiana  

•33 
•49 

1 
4 

1 
3 

1 
4 

Cypress 

Taxodium  distichnm  

•45 

2 

6 

3 

Redwood  

Sequoia  sempervirens  

•42 

1 

3 

3 

Birch  

•70 

7 

9 

9 

White  Oak 

Ouercus  alba  . 

•75 

7 

6 

G 

Red  Oak 

0  rubra 

•65 

5 

7 

7 

Chestnut    . 

Castanea  vulgaris  

•45 

2 

5 

4 

Beech  

J?agus  ferruginea  

•69 

6 

8 

9 

Black  Walnut.  .  . 

Juglans  nigra  

•61 

6 

7 

5 

Butternut 

•J  cinerea 

•41 

2 

4 

3 

Hickory 

(Jarya  alba 

•84 

9 

9 

9 

Buttonwood 

Platanus  occidentalis    .  .  . 

•57 

5 

5 

3 

Ash... 

Fravinus  Americana  

•65 

5 

6 

5 

Wild  Cherry  .  . 

Pninus  serotina  

•58 

6 

5 

5 

.Locust  

•73 

8 

8 

10 

Su/'ar-^Vfaple 

Acer  macrophyilum 

•49 

5 

4 

4 

Mahogany    . 

Swietenia  mahogani  . 

•73 

10 

6 

7 

Jjignum-vitas 

Giiaiacum  sanctum    

1-14 

(28) 

5 

5 

Basswood 

TiHa  Americana 

•45 

1 

5 

2 

White  wood  

Liriodendron  tulipifera  .... 

•42 

2 

5 

3 

WOOD  AND  IRON. 

Before  the  great  advancement  in  the  manipulation  of  iron 
and  steel,  wood  had  a  much  more  extended  application  than 
exists  at  the  present  day.  Structures  such  as  buildings,  fur- 
niture, and  implements,  were  made  entirely  of  wood;  the 
pieces  were  stiffened  by  wooden  braces  and  the  joints  fast- 
ened by  wooden  pins.  But  the  superior  strength  of  metal, 
and  the  convenience  which  attends  its  use  in  connection  with 
wood,  have  led  to  great  changes  in  the  manner  of  construc- 
tion and  the  form  of  the  work.  Wooden  pins  and  hand-made 
nails  have  given  way  to  machine-cut  nails  and  screws,  and 
the  superior  joints  obtained  by  the  latter  allow  the  wooden 
parts  to  be  made  of  different  kinds  and  much  lighter  than 
before. 

In  America,  where  wood  is  plentiful  and  cheap,  dwellings 


WOOD-WORKING   TRADES.  39 

and  buildings  generally  are  made  of  this  material.  In  por- 
tions of  the  larger  cities  where  the  houses  are  necessarily 
high  and  crowded,  the  danger  attending  the  use  of  such  a 
readily  inflammable  substance  as  wood  has  led  to  the  adop- 
tion of  brick  and  stone  for  the  walls,  and  metal  or  slate  for 
the  roofs. 

Lightness  of  weight  and  the  natural  beauty  of  its  grain 
will  always  insure  the  employment  of  wood  in  the  manufact- 
ure of  furniture,  and  for  the  trim  and  interior  decoration  of 
houses.  To  secure  lightness  and  elasticity  in  implements 
and  machinery,  many  parts  must  be  constructed  of  wood. 

Temporary  structures,  such  as  scaffolding  and  the  false 
work  of  bridges  and  trestles,  are  built  of  wood,  and  require 
almost  as  much  care  in  their  construction  as  if  intended  to 
be  permanent. 

In  ship-building,  iron  and  steel  have  almost  supplanted 
the  employment  of  wood.  Their  superior  strength  and  firm- 
ness at  the  joints  make  safer  and  faster  vessels. 

As  a  direct  result  of  the  progress  in  the  manufacture  of 
iron  and  steel,  most  of  the  wood-working  tools  and  machin- 
ery have  been  greatly  modified  and  improved.  This  is  best 
seen  among  the  measuring,  boring,  and  planing  tools,  which 
have  so  changed  that  greater  accuracy,  easier  work,  and 
better  finish  are  now  within  the  power  of  every  workman. 
Among  the  machines  may  be  found  appliances  for  imitating 
many  of  the  operations  formerly  done  by  hand,  and,  while 
this  may  ssem  to  be  an  encroachment  upon  the  province  of 
the  workman,  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  proper  care 
and  adjustment  of  these  machines,  and  the  accurate  union  of 
the  pieces  shaped  by  them,  necessitate  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  the  manipulation  of  the  hand  tools. 

WOOD-WORKING  TRADES. 

While  one  or  two  men  in  a  small  community  may  furnish 
all  the  wood  and  metal  work  needed  by  it,  in  large  towns 
and  cities  the  great  amount  and  variety  of  work  required 
necessitate  a  division  of  labor,  resulting  in  numerous  trades 
or  crafts.  Some  of  these  are  exclusively  wood-working, 


40  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

others  metal  -  working,  while  a  few  combine  portions  of 
both. 

To  follow  or  employ  any  one  of  the  trades  intelligently 
and  successfully,  the  underlying  principles  governing  the  use 
of  all  sharp  tools  must  first  be  thoroughly  understood  and 
acquired  by  practice.  Upon  this  knowledge  as  a  basis  the 
numerous  details  of  forms  and  joints,  of  arrangement  and 
adaptation  of  different  materials,  must  then  be  accumulated 
by  years  of  work  and  study  to  produce  a  mechanic  in  any 
one  of  the  various  pursuits. 

Carpentry. — Of  all  the  wood-working  trades  carpentry  is 
the  most  general.  It  includes  the  cutting  and  framing  of 
large  timbers  and  rough  planks  and  boards  for  building 
houses,  bridges,  trestles,  piers,  ship-frames,  and  the  like. 
The  form,  size,  and  arrangement  of  the  timbers  necessary  to 
resist  the  strains  are  designed  by  an  engineer  or  architect, 
but  the  details,  and  especially  those  of  the  joints,  must  be 
determined  and  laid  out  by  the  carpenter.  The  woods  made 
use  of  in  carpentry  are  usually  pine,  hemlock,  spruce,  oak, 
and  chestnut.  The  tools  employed  are  the  larger  hand-saws, 
ax,  adz,  strong  chisels,  brace  and  large  bits,  hammer,  and 
mallet ;  and  for  marking,  a  chalk-line,  tape  measure,  large 
steel  square,  and  carpenter's  pencil,  together  with  plumb-line 
or  level ;  as  a  general  thing,  these  complete  the  outfit. 

Joinery  differs  from  carpentry  in  that  the  work  is  smaller 
and  made  smoother;  and  the  form,  size,  and  joints  estab- 
lished by  experience  and  long  usage  are  constructed  to  give 
a  finished  appearance  as  well  as  strength.  All  the  commoner 
arid  fancy  woods,  together  with  bone,  ivory,  and  some  of  the 
metals,  are  used  in  the  many  branches  of  joinery.  The  tools, 
besides  those  of  the  carpenter,  include  the  finer  saws,  chisels, 
and  gouges,  the  various  forms  of  planes,  smaller  boring-tools, 
and  measuring-tools,  such  as  try-squares,  bevels,  gauges, 
compasses,  and  finely  divided  rules. 

As  necessary  adjuncts  to  joinery  we  have  turnery  and 
carving,  with  modified  forms  of  chisels  and  gouges  for  or- 
namental work ;  and  painting  for  finishing  and  preserving 
work. 


PARASITIC  PLANTS.  41 

Some  of  the  applications  of  joinery  create  distinct  trades, 
such  as  cabinet  and  furniture  making ;  stair,  sash,  and  door 
making;  pattern  and  model  making;  carriage  and  boat 
building,  and  cooperage — all  of  which  require  special  woods 
and  modified  forms  of  tools  adapted  to  the  particular  and 
various  forms  and  joints  peculiar  to  each. 

In  America  there  are  many  mechanics  well  versed  in 
both  carpentry  and  joinery  of  ordinary  house-building,  and 
who  are  known  by  the  general  name  of  carpenter. 

PARASITIC  PLANTS. 

The  forms  of  plant-life  destructive  to  living  trees  and 
lumber  belong  to  the  higher  orders  of  the  group  Fungi. 
These  are  parasites — that  is,  they  do  not  possess  chlorophyl 
(the  green  matter  common  to  the  higher  orders  of  plants),  and 
therefore  do  not  assimilate  or  digest  food  for  themselves,  but 
live  on  the  digested  and  structural  material  of  others.  They 
are  developed  from  minute  spores,  grow  and  decay  very 
rapidly,  and  contain  a  large  amount  of  nitrogen  in  their 
composition. 

The  structure  of  these  fungi  consists  of  two  portions — a 
tangle  of  thread-like  filaments  having  somewhat  the  appear- 
ance of  the  root-hairs  in  the  higher  orders  of  plants,  and 
which  have  for  their  function  the  absorbing  of  nutritive 
material  for  the  fungus ;  and  a  denser  portion  composed  of 
straight  filaments,  which  form  on  their  extremities  the  spore- 
bearing  cells. 

In  developing,  the  fungus  starts  from  the  spore,  which 
corresponds  to  the  seed  of  the  higher  orders.  This  spore 
sends  out  a  long  filamentous  tube  which,  as  it  progresses, 
gives  off  branches,  and  these  in  their  turn  branch  until  the 
tangle  of  filaments  called  the  mycelium  is  formed.  This  my- 
celium may  have  long  and  separated  filaments,  as  in  the 
underground  portion  of  mushrooms,  or  it  may  have  the  fila- 
ments massed  together,  as  seen  in  some  polyporous  fungi 
under  the  bark  of  trees.  When  the  mycelium  has  absorbed 
sufficient  nourishment  to  produce  spores,  it  sends  out  the 
straight  branches  usually  into  the  light.  The  mycelium  is 


42  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

about  the  same  in  all  the  different  fungi ;  the.  variations  in 
the  form  and  color  of  the  spore-bearing  portion,  and  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  spores,  giving  to  each  kind  its  place  in  clas- 
sification. 

The  exact  conditions  which  cause  the  spore  to  develop  a 
mycelium  are  not  known,  but  it  may  be  generally  stated  that 
it  must  find  a  resting-place  containing  nutritive  elements 
peculiarly  suited  for  its  growth,  and,  as  accompanying  con- 
ditions, warmth,  moisture,  ammonia,  and  an  absence  of  strong 
light. 

Some  of  the  fungi  obtain  their  food  from  the  contents  of 
the  living  cells  of  the  plant,  so  that  the  mycelium  destroys 
by  entering  and  depleting  the  sap-wood  of  the  tree.  In  others 
the  mycelium  secretes  a  peculiar  juice,  which  has  the  power 
of  decomposing  the  lignin  of  the  heart-wood,  and  converting 
it  back  into  cellulose,  which  is  dissolved  and  absorbed  by  the 
fungus.  The  latter  destroys  by  removing  those  elements 
which  give  to  wood  its  strength,  and  causes  a  condition  in 
the  tree  or  lumber  known  as  decay  or  rot. 

In  the  heart- wood  the  vessels  and  cells  facilitate  the 
growth  of  the  fungus  in  the  direction  of  the  grain,  while  its 
progress  across  the  grain  is  comparatively 
slow.  In  passing  to  adjoining  cells  the 
filaments  of  the  mycelium  may  go  through 
the  pores,  or  by  the  solvent  action  of  its 
secretion  make  openings  for  itself. 

The  extent  to  which  these  fungi  will 
grow  depends  on  the  supply  of  food  mate- 
r^>  so  that,  once  established  in  the  stem  of 
a  tree>  they  may  spread  until  the  entire 
holes  formed  by  f        structure  is  consumed.     If  their  filaments 
pass  through  the  soil,  like  those  of  some  of 
the  toadstools,  many  trees  may  be  affected  and  destroyed  by 
one  fungus.     The  innumerable  mass  of  spores  given  off  by 
the  fungus  would  seem  to  predict  the  entire  destruction  of 
timber-trees,  but  fortunately  this  is  prevented  by  the  difficul- 
ty of  satisfying  the  peculiar  requirements  necessary  for  the 
development  of  the  spores. 


PARASITIC  PLANTS. 


Among  the  parasitic  fungi  those  which  are  especially  de- 
structive to  wood  belong  to  the  group  HYMENOMYCETES,  or 
those  having  naked  spores  growing  on  exposed  surfaces.  In 
the  agarics,  or  toadstools,  these  surfaces  are  thin,  flat  plates, 
called  gills.  In  the  polypores,  or  tree-fungi,  the  spore  sur- 
faces are  tubes  whose  openings  constitute  the  pores.  In 
Merulius,OY  tear-fungus,  the  spore  surfaces  are  shallow  cavi- 
ties. 

The  toadstool  (Agaricus  melleus)  is  very  destructive  to 
many  trees,  including  the  firs,  pines,  beech,  and  oak.  Its 
mycelium  consists  of  long,  dark  filaments  several  inches  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  ground,  that  gain 
access  to  the  wood  by  attacking  the  roots 
and  sending  its  filaments  up  into  the 
stem.  The  spore-bearing'  portion  is  fre- 
quently seen  in  the  autumn  at  the  base  of 
dead  trees ;  it  is  yellowish,  and  has  the 
gills  extending  partly  down  the  stem,  on 
which  is  a  well-marked  ring.  Besides 
scattering  its  spores,  the  danger  from  this 
fungus  consists  in  its  power  to  send  fila- 
ments through  the  soil  from  one  tree  to 
another. 

The  tree-fungus  (Polyporus  annosus) 
is  very  destructive  to  the  pines  and  firs. 
Its  mycelium  is  white,  silky,  and  forces 
its  way  through  the  bark  of  the  roots  into 
the  living  cells,  and  from  them  into  the  heart-wood.  The 
spore-bearing  portion  may  appear  on  the  lower  part  of  the 
trunk  or  upon  the  roots  underground.  The  porous  surface 
is  turned  upward  and  the  spores  transported  by  insects  or 
burrowing  animals  from  root  to  root.  The  Polyporus  sul- 
phurus  is  one  of  the  best  known  of  the  destructive  fungi, 
and  attacks  almost  every  kind  of  tree.  Its  mycelium  devel- 
ops from  spores  which  lodge  in  the  stump  of  broken  or 
sawed  branches,  and  passes  downward  into  the  stem  con- 
suming the  tissue  as  it  goes.  Jts  sporing  portion  is  bright 
yellow  on  the  under  or  porous  side  and  red  above,  usually 


FIG.   18.  —  Toadstool,     a, 
stem  ;  ft,  umbrella  top  ; 

c,  ring,  attached  to  Jhe 
top  before  it  expands ; 

d,  gills  ;    e,    filaments 
forming  the  mycelium. 


44  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD- WORKING. 

projecting  from  the  decayed  stump  of  the  branch  or  in  ad- 
vanced cases  from  the  side  of  the  stem. 

P.  pini  is  similar  to  the  P.  sulphurus, 
and  is  a  wound-parasite  on  the  pines. 

P.  fulvus  is  also  a  pine-tree  fungus,  pe- 
culiar in  its  action,  in  that  it  does  not  dis- 
solve the  lignified  parts  of  the  cell,  but  the 
thin  membranous  substance  which  unites 
the  cells,  thus  setting  the  cells  free.  P. 
dryadeus  acts  in  a  similar  way  in  oak-trees. 
FIG.  19. -  Poiypore  MeruUus  Ictcrymans  affects  pine  and 
f<Snt? e°en  a  Uving  spruce  timber  in  houses,  and  especially  the 
ends  of  joists  and  beams  in  contact  with 
damp  brick  or  stone  walls.  Its  mycelium  penetrates  the 
end  wood,  causing  dry  rot  and  forms  on  the  surface  of  the 
wood  and  adjacent  brick-work  a  fiat,  moist  mass  which  de- 
velops on  its  under  side  shallow  spore  cavities.  All  fungi 
contain  large  quantities  of  water,  but  the  lacrymans  fre- 
quently holds  an  excess  which  exudes  in  small  drops  from 
its  spore  surface. 

The  Dczdalia  is  closely  related  to  the  Polyporus,  and  is 
parasitic  on  white  cedar  and  cypress. 

Among  the  higher  forms  of  fungi  the  Dematium  gigan- 
teum  is  very  destructive  to  oak;  noted  cases  of  its  ravages 
being  the  destruction  of  oak  piles  along  the  sides  of  the  Canal 
du  Midi,  Toulouse,  and  the  destruction  of  the  Foudroyant,  a 
sixty-gun  vessel,  in  two  or  three  years. 

The  moist  condition  of  standing  timber  adapts  it  to  the 
attacks  of  the  fungus  mycelium.  In  cut  timber,  warmth  and 
moisture,  with  bad  ventilation  and  imperfect  seasoning,  all 
favor  the  growth  of  the  fungus.  An  examination  of  the 
wood,  as  the  mycelium  progresses,  shows  at  first  a  darkening, 
usually  of  a  brown  tint,  due  to  the  action  of  the  fungus  secre- 
tion on  the  wood.  Then  the  wood  becomes  yellowish,  with 
black  spots  surrounded  by  white  masses  of  cellulose,  derived 
from  the  decomposed  lignin  of  the  cell-walls.  This  cellulose 
is  slowly  absorbed  by  the  mycelium,  the  wood  assumes  a 
light-brown  color,  and  is  very  soft  and  brittle.  When  the 


TIMBER-BORERS.  45 

thin  membrane  which  unites  the  cells  becomes  dissolved, 
then  the  wood  loses  its  form  and  breaks  down  into  a  brown 
powder,  leaving  a  hollow  trunk. 

TIMBER-BORERS. 

From  the  outer  bark  to  the  innermost  heart- wood,  all 
trees  have  enemies,  more  numerous  if  not  more  destructive 
than  man.  If  we  go  to  the  nearest  saw-mill  or  wood-pile, 
almost  the  first  thing  we  notice  is  the  worm-eaten  appear- 
ance that  so  many  timbers  present.  If,  now,  we  stop  and 
examine  one  of  these  logs  with  a  little  care,  we  may  make 
out  the  directions  of  the  borings,  and  probably  find  the  cause 
of  these  depredations  in  the  form  of  a  small,  white-bodied 
grub.  A  little  further  study  of  the  various  woods  in  the 
neighborhood  will  show  us : 

1.  That  borings  in  the  same  log  may  be  made  by  different 
kinds  of  grubs. 

2.  That  special  kinds  of  borers  infest  certain  kinds  and 
conditions  of  woods. 

3.  That  the  softer  parts  of  the  tree,  such  as  sap-wood  or 
wood  in  decay,  are  far  more  frequently  infested  than  the 
harder  parts. 

4.  That,  on  account  of  the  more  porous  structure,  the 
grub    is    apt  to   follow   the    grain    of    the    timber,   rather 
than  pass  through  a  number  of  more  compact  rings  of 
growth. 

We  have  thus  far  been  considering  the  case  of  wood  in 
the  green  state,  but  we  may  find  that  these  principles  of 
borers  may  be  applied  as  well  to  seasoned  woods,  save  that 
this  class  is  not  usually  attacked  until  decay  has  commenced. 
Any  method  of  softening  the  wood,  as  heat,  cold,  or  moisture, 
aids  its  destruction  by  insects.  The  destruction  of  timbers 
under  water  such  as  wharf  or  bridge  piers,  or  ship-bottoms, 
is  hardly  a  part  of  the  present  theme.  It  may  be  noted, 
however,  that  what  the  insect  does  on  land,  the  mollusk, 
boring  sponge,  and  marine  worm  accomplish  in  salt  water ; 
and  that  such  destruction  is  apt  to  be  most  rapid  near  the 
low- water  mark. 


46  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

Thus  far  we  have  seen  where  the  borings  occur;  let  us 
now  consider  the  insect  itself,  and  its  method  of  work. 

Probably  all  the  borings  we  have  so  far  seen  have  been 
the  work  of  beetle-grubs.  We  must  remember  that  beetles, 
like  butterflies,  and  like  nearly  every  other  insect,  must  pass 
through  a  series  of  changes  or  transformations  before  they 
become  what  we  regard  as  beetles.  The  egg  laid  by  the 
adult  beetle  on  the  proper  food-supply  hatches  into  a  minute 
grub.  This  grub,  or  larva,  sets  at  once  to  feeding,  grows  con- 
tinually, and  sheds  or  molts  its  outgrown  skins  until  it 


FIG.  20.— Oak-pruner. 


FIG.  21.— Its  larva.      FIG.  22.— Its  pupa. 


attains  a  limit  of  size.  Thence  the  insect  passes  into  a  curi- 
ous, mummy-like  pupa  stage ;  and  it  is  from  this  dormant 
state  of  transition  that  the  beetle  finally  emerges.  Keeping 
in  mind  this  life-history,  we  may  see  .how  from  the  egg  in 
some  crevice  of  bark  the  grub  has  steadily  eaten  its  way  in- 
ward to  its  proper  food-supply,  whether  in  sap-wood  or  heart- 
wood,  and  has  there  grown  and  prospered.  As  the  period  of 
this  feeding  life  in  many  borers  extends  over  years,  we  may 
understand  how  much  damage  is  apt  to  be  done.  The  grub 
spends  its  time  feeding  and  resting,  frequently  retracing  its 
way  to  the  outer  opening,  and  enlarging  its  gallery  wljen- 
ever  necessary.  A  large  amount  of  the  waste  sawdust,  some- 
times freshly  cut,  sometimes  glued  into  pellets  by  the  insect's 
secretions,  is  continually  being  pushed  out  of  the  boring  and 
allowed  to  drop  to  the  ground,  whitening  the  bark  of  the 
tree  and  readily  revealing  the  insect's  whereabout.  When 
about  to  transform  into  the  pupa  the  grub  usually  fills  up 


TIMBER-BORERS.  tf 

the  outer  opening  with  drippings,  stuck  together,  in  order  to 
conceal  itself  from  enemies,  especially  from  the  sharp-eyed 
woodpecker.  Sometimes,  instead  of  this  method  of  protec- 
tion, the  insect  will  inclose  itself  in  a  strongly  made  cocoon 
of  drippings ;  but  in  either  case  the  glue-like  matrix  is  readily 
dissolved  by  a  secretion  of  the  escaping  insect. 

The  way  in  which  the  grub  is  enabled  to  bore  into  the 
hardest  woods  is  certainly  of  singular  interest,  and  gives 
another  example  of  the  wonderful  muscular  development  of 
the  insect,  more  wonderful  than  the  leg-muscles  of  the  grass- 
hopper or  even  than  the  wing-muscles  of  the  humming-bird 
moth.  If  we  take  any  common  beetle,  whether  perfect  or  in 
the  grub  stage,  and  examine  for  a  moment  the  mouth  parts, 
we  may  readily  make  out  a  pair  of  short,  thick  jaws,  or 
mandibles,  moving  side  wise,  reminding  us  of  the  tinsmith's 
shears,  protected  by  flap-like  lips,  one  in  front  and  one  be- 
hind. It  may  be  seen,  from  the  way  the  lips  are  hinged  at 
their  bases,  that  they  may  serve  to  hold  the  object  to  be  cut, 
and  that  they  are  aided  in  this  by  a  pair  of  small,  jointed  ap- 
pendages inserted  near  the  under  lip.  The  mandibles  them- 
selves, if  more  closely  examined,  will  be  seen,  like  the  shears, 
to  press  their  cutting  edges  together  as  they  meet  side  by 
side,  but  we  must  note  that  the  cutting  edges  are  short  and 
curved,  somewhat  like  the  edge  of  a  gouge.  The  pivot  on 
which  the  jaws  rotate  is  located  at  the  extreme  outer  margin 
of  the  mouth,  and  the  heavy  muscles  which  start  from  the 
back  of  the  insect's  head  are  attached  solidly  to  the  movable 
jaw  between  the  pivot  and  curved,  or  gouge-like  cutting  edge, 
so  as  to  gain  an  immense  leverage.  The  boring  is  in  reality 
a  process  of  countersinking,  the  insect  frequently  changing 
from  a  right  to  left  motion,  to  one  from  left  to  right,  and  it 
is  by  some  believed  that  in  this  change  the  jaws  are  sharp- 
ened. As  a  rule  it  maybe  stated  that  the  jaw  of  a  hard- 
wood borer  has  a  short,  strong,  cutting  edge,  and  that  the 
particles  of  wood  cut  are  exceedingly  minute.  So  nicely  are 
the  cutting  powers  adjusted  that  instances  are  recorded  of 
the  boring  of  sheet-iron  by  an  escaping  beetle.  A  Central 
American  wood-beetle  (Zopherus),  kept  alive  this  winter  in  a 


EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING, 


......  o 


PIG.  23.— Mouth-parts  of  Zopherus  Mexicanua. 


WITERSITTJ 

TIMBER-BORERS.  49 

glass  jar  at  college,  found  no  difficulty  in  cutting  its  way 
out,  of  an  evening,  through  a  covering  of  sheet-lead  one  six- 
teenth inch  thick. 

Of  the  common  borers  we  may  name  a  few  of  the  more 
important.     The  Buprestids  and  the  related  beetles  are  well 


FIG.  24.— Buprestid.  FIG.  25.— Pine- weevil.  FIG.  26.— Clytus. 

recognized  as  among  the  most  destructive  and  most  numer- 
ous ;  a  number  of  species,  represented  in  Fig.  24  by  Buprestis 
Virginica,  living  in  pine  timbers.  The  grub  of  the  hand- 
some Painted  Clytus,  so  common  among  the  flowers  of  the 
golden-rod,  infests  locust-trees,  that  of  the  Clytus  speciosa 
is  destructive  to  maples.  Although  the  Weevils  are  usually 
spoken  of  as  the  fruit  and  grain  destroyers,  their  reputation 
seems  equally  bad  among  timbers.  One  of  the  most  common 
of  beetles,  represented  by  numbers  of  species,  we  find  them 
infesting  every  kind  of  tree  from  bark  to  heart-wood,  and 
especially  destructive  to  felled  timbers.  It  is  to  a  species  of 

EXPLANATION  OP  FIGURE  23. 

1.  Dorsal  aspect  of  the  head  of  Zopherus  Mexicanus :  I,  iabrum  ;  />,  palpus  ;  c,  clypeus  ;  e, 

eye  ;  a,  antenna. 

2.  Inner  face  of  the  Iabrum  :  6,  fringing  bristles  ;  m,  insertion  of  muscles  ;  h,  deep  hinge, 

with  insertion  of  muscles  joining  to  clypeus. 

3.  Ventral  aspect  of  the  head :   I,  Iabrum ;  p,  palpus ;  md,  mandible ;  li,  labium  ;  mx, 

maxilla  ;  mt,  mentum  ;  a,  antenna  ;  th,  thorax. 

4.  Ventral  aspect  of  the  left  maxilla  with  its  palpi :   ep,  external  palpus ;  ip,  internal 

palpus. 

5.  Inner  face  of  the  labium  :  6,  bristles  of  tongue-groove  ;  m,  insertion  of  tongue-muscles  ; 

ft,  hinge,  connecting  the  labium  with  the  mentum. 

6.  Longitudinal- vertical  section  of  the  head  :  th.  thorax  ;  c,  clypeus  ;  I,  Iabrum  ;  md,  man- 

dible ;  li,  labium  ;  mm,  muscles  of  the  mandible  ;  mh,  muscles  moving  the  head  on  the 
thorax ;  o,  oesophagus. 

7.  Ventral  aspect  of  the  right  mandible  :  e,  cutting  edge  ;  cd ,  double-headed  pivot  or  con- 

dyle  ;  mm,  insertion  of  the  muscles. 

8.  External  lateral  aspect  of  the  right  mandible  :  h,  the  hinge  ;  c,  the  condyle  ;  1,  2,  direc- 

tion of  cutting  movement. 

From  the  Journal  of  the  New  York  Microscopical  Society,  July,  1888. 
4 


EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 


weevil  we  are  indebted  for  the  worm-eaten  appearance  pre- 
sented by  old  carved-oak  furniture.  So  often,  indeed,  are 
these  borings  regarded  as  an  evidence  of  the  antiquity  of 
furniture,  that  many  European  dealers  have  been  known  to 
imitate  their  presence  by  a  charge  of  fine  bird-shot. 

The  large  Roebuck  beetle,  or  Horn-bug  (Lucanus  dama, 


FIG.  27.— Saw-beetle. 


FIG.  28.— Horn-bug. 


Fig.  28),  is  fortunately  at  present  rather  uncommon  ;  the 

grub  attains  the  size  of  a  man's  thumb  after  a  six  years'  life 

spent  in  boring  forest  trees. 

Another  large  borer  is  the  common  brown  Saw-Beetle 

(Prionus  unicolor),  named  from  its  saw-like  feelers.  It  in- 
fests pine-trees,  and  may  be 
taken  as  the  type  of  the  de- 
structive saw-beetle  family. 

Besides  the  beetles  nearly 
every  other  order  of  insects 
has  members  more  or  less  de- 
structive as  borers.  Among 
wasps,  for  example,  we  are 
surely  all  familiar  with  the 
large  Carpenter  -  Bee  (Xylo- 
carpa  Virginica).  so  common 
FIG.  29.— carpenter-bee.  about  the  posts  and  railings 


TIMBER-BORERS.  51 

of  our  country  porches,  which  bores  a  gallery  for  its  young 
large  enough  to  admit  a  finger. 


FIG.  30.— Carpenter- moth. 

As  another  example  we  may  mention  a  moth,  not  uncom- 
mon about  the  city,  whose  caterpillar  lives  in  the  hard  yellow 
locust,  the  Carpenter-Moth  (Xyleutes  robinice). 

Before  closing,  it  would  perhaps  be  of  interest  to  say  a 
few  words  of  the  relation  of  insects  to  knarls  or  burls.  These 
knotty  outgrowths  may  occur  on  any  tree,  both  on  branch 
and  trunk,  but  become  valuable  only  when  of  a  size  suitable 
for  cabinet-work  or  veneer-cutting.  The  wood  in  such  cases 
is  abnormally  hard,  is  dark  and  mottled  in  color,  and  usually 
presents  a  curled,  wavy  grain. 

The  origin  of  burls  has  as  yet  been  but  little  studied.  It 
is,  however,  usually  conceded  that  these  deformations,  like 
the  well-understood  galls,  were  originally  produced  by  in- 
sects ;  that  the  young  grubs  feeding  upon  and  irritating  the 
most  delicate  tissues,  have  caused  the  plant  to  form  the 
irregular  accumulation  of  new  wood-cells,  both  in  and  about 
the  injured  part.  That  this  formation  will  go  on  for  ages 
after  the  cause  has  disappeared  seems  to  have  been  well  es- 
tablished, and  it  is  often  found  that  in  after-years  the  burl 
may  fail  to  exhibit  the  slightest  trace  of  its  insect  origin. 

As  in  the  formation  of  galls,  the  insects  that  cause  these 
deformations  are  not  confined  to  an  isolated  group,  but 
belong  to  a  number  of  families  in  no  less  than  five  different 


52  EXERCISES  IN  WOOD-WORKING. 

orders.     The  beetle-larvae,  namely,  Buprestids  and  Weevils, 
are  usually  regarded  as  the  typical  burl-formers. 

PRESERVATION  OF  WOOD. 
t 

To  preserve  wood  it  must  be  protected  from  those  causes 
which  induce  warping,  checking,  and  discoloration ;  be  re- 
moved from  those^  conditions  which  favor  the  development 
of  fungi  and  the  boring  of  insects. 

Attention  must  first  be  given  to  the  seasoning  of  the 
wood.  The  logs  should  be  sawed  into  lumber  as  soon  as  pos- 
sible after  cutting,  or,  if  they  have  been  immersed  in  water, 
immediately  on  removal  frorn  the  water,  then  stacked  in  the 
open  air  and  allowed  to  remain  until  thoroughly  seasoned, 
or  be  subjected  to  some  other  drying  process  now  in  use. 
If  the  logs  are  to  be  shipped  a  long  distance,  or  remain  un- 
sawed  for  even  a  few  weeks,  it  is  necessary  to  remove  the 
bark  and  coat  the  surface,  particularly  the  ends  of  the 
log,  with  a  thick  coat  of  tar  or  paint,  to  retard  evapora- 
tion. From  most  logs  the  sap-wood  should  be  removed,  to 
prevent  the  attacks  of  fungi  and  insects.  The  sap-wood  of 
lignum- vitse  is  allowed  to  remain,  to  prevent  checking  in  the 
heart-wood. 

Exposure  of  the  raw  surface  of  wood  to  the  alternate 
action  of  rain  or  moisture  and  sunlight  causes  a  discolora- 
tion called  weather-stain,  which  penetrates  into  the  tissue  and 
renders  the  surface  unfit  for  finished  work.  If  exposed  for 
a  long  time,  the  softer  portions  are  worn  away,  giving  a 
weather-beaten  effect.  To  protect  smoothed  boards  from  the 
action  of  the  weather,  they  are  oiled,  painted,  or  varnished. 
Sawed  and  weather-beaten  surfaces  require  a  large  quantity 
of  paint  to  cover  them,  and  may  be  whitewashed  or  coated 
with  some  other  lime  preparation. 

Few  woods  can  resist  the  constant  alternation  of  damp- 
ness and  dryness  occurring  in  those  portions  of  timber  in 
contact  with  the  soil.  Here  we  have  the  most  favorable  con- 
dition for  the  attacks  of  fungi  and  eventually  decay  or  rot. 
The  ends  of  beams  and  joists  resting  on  damp  walls,  posts 
set  in  stone  foundations,  fences  and  railroad-ties,  are  well- 


PRESERVATION  OF   WOOD,  53 

known  examples  of  wood  exposed  to  this  condition.  Those 
woods  which  have  the  least  tendency  to  decay  in  contact 
with  the  soil  are  the  cypress,  redwood,  cedar,  locust,  and 
white  oak.  The  others  require  some  one  of  the  various  arti- 
ficial means  to  preserve  them. 

Charring,  in  which  the  wood  is  held  for  a  few  minutes  in 
a  fire  until  the  surface  is  evenly  and  completely  converted 
into  charcoal.  This  will  be  effectual  only  in  well-seasoned 
woods,  because,  if  the  wood  checks  after  the  operation,  fungus- 
spores  may  germinate  in  the  check  and  cause  rotting  of  the 
wood.  A  specimen  observed  by  the  author  had  a  large,  well- 
developed  polypore  in  a  stick  that  had  been  charred  only 
one  year. 

Creosote. — The  protective  substance  developed  in  charring 
seems  to  be  creosote,  which  is  one  of  the  best  preservatives 
we  have.  The  ends  of  timbers  are  placed  in'the  creosote  until 
they  have  drawn  up  into  their  pores  a  sufficient  quantity, 
and,  as  long  as  it  gives  a  perceptible  odor  to  the  wood,  fungi 
and  insects,  including  even  the  white  ants,  leave  it  alone. 

Wood-Tar  and  Coal-Tar  are  quite  frequently  used  in  Amer- 
ica as  preserving  coats  for  wood.  They  are  to  be  recom- 
mended as  cheap  and  effective,  and  especially  adapted  to 
out-of-door  structures. 

Paint. — Although  the  so-called  metallic  paint,  in  which 
an  oxide  of  iron  is  the  basis,  and  common  paint,  with  car- 
bonate of  lead  as  a  basis,  have  been  used  to  a  great  extent 
for  preserving  wood,  they  are  desirable  only  for  those  por- 
tions of  wooden  structures  not  in  contact  with  the  soil.  In 
any  event,  they  need  renewal  every  two  or  three  years  to 
continue  their  preservative  action. 

Many  chemical  solutions  have  been  used  to  protect  wood 
from  fungi,  insects,  and  even  from  fire.  .Of  these  a  ten-per- 
cent solution  of  sulphate  of  copper,  in  which  the  wood  is 
placed  until  its  cells  and  vessels  have  absorbed  a  sufficient 
quantity,  is  the  most  prominent.  A  mixture,  of  one  part  of 
silicate  of  sodium  and  three  of  water,  applied  to  the  wood, 
renders  it  fire-proof  and  free  from  the  attacks  of  parasites. 
Acid  solutions  of  various  alums,  together  with  sulphates  of 


54  EXERCISES  IN   WOOD-WORKING. 

zinc  and  potassium,  have  been  strongly  recommended.  For 
railroad-ties  a  solution  of  rosin  and  paraffin  in  benzine  has 
been  used  effectually.  In  most  of  these  solutions  the  wood 
is  simply  immersed  ;  but,  to  render  the  absorption  very  com- 
plete, the  air  is  first  removed  by  vacuum-pumps,  and  the 
wood  then  immersed  in  the  preserving  fluid. 

Wood  will  not  decay  as  long  as  it  is  kept  well  ventilated 
and  dry.  It  may  become  brittle  with  age,  but  no  sign  of 
fungus  growth  will  make  its  appearance.  This  is  shown  in 
the  wood  of  old  pieces  of  furniture  and  the  interior  wood- 
work of  houses,  which  the  coat  of  paint  or  varnish  has  kept 
perfectly  sound. 

The  opposite  condition,  in  which  the  wood  is  constantly 
covered  by  water,  will  also  preserve  it ;  as  examples  of  this, 
we  have  the  oak  of  vessels  sunken  for  a  hundred  years  or 
more,  and  the  remains  of  ancient  lake-dwellers  in  Switzer- 
land and  England.  It  is  because  of  this  peculiar  preservative 
action  of  water  that  foundations  of  great  structures  of  gran- 
ite and  marble  are  laid  upon  the  tops  of  wooden  piles,  driven 
below  the  low-water  mark. 

In  America,  with  its  bountiful  supply  of  wood,  which  is 
easily  obtained  and  cheap,  little  attention  has  been  paid  to 
means  of  preserving  it.  But  now  we  begin  to  note  the  result 
of  extravagant  and  unchecked  destruction  of  timber-lands 
by  the  increasing  scarcity  of  some  of  the  ordinary  kinds,  and 
in  the  attempts  made  to  preserve  railroad-ties. 


PART  SECOND. 
TOOLS— DBA  WING— EXERCISES. 


WOOD-WOKKLNTG. 


IN"  arranging  a  workshop,  the  position  of  the  work-bench  with 
regard  to  the  light  is  of  prime  importance.  For  carpentry  and 
general  joinery,  the  light  should  be  at  the  head  of  the  bench,  so 
that  it  can  pass  under  the  try-square,  and  to  avoid  awkward  posi- 
tions in  testing  work.  The  turner  and  carver  should  have  the 
light  come  down  on  the  top  of  their  work,  from  a  sky-light,  or 
have  the  lathe  or  bench  in  front  of  a  tall  window,  the  lower  part 
of  which  is  screened  by  tool-racks. 

Although  some  workmen  are  obliged  to  keep  their  tools  in 
chests  for  convenience  in  moving,  or  in  drawers  under  the  bench, 
the  better  plan  is  to  have  them  in  a  closet  within  easy  reach,  above 
the  bench  or  against  the  wall  opposite  the  bench.  The  closet 
should  have  the  doors  and  sides  furnished  with  strips  of  wood 
notched  to  hold  the  various  tools,  nearly  all  of  which  may  be  sup- 
ported on  such  racks.  Each  tool  thus  has  its  own  peg  or  place,  in 
which  it  is  kept  when  not  in  use.  Even  in  a  chest  or  in  drawers 
the  saws,  chisels,  gouges,  bits,  and  other  edge  tools,  are  separated 
by  notched  strips  to  prevent  injury  to  their  edges. 

The  work-bench  itself,  made  of  hard  wood,  preferably  maple, 
requires  some  care  to  preserve  a  smooth  and  clean  top.  The  saws, 
chisels,  boring-tools,  nails,  screws,  or  other  sharp  tools,  must  never 
cut  into  the  bench.  The  vise  should  be  brought  square  to  its 
work,  and  no  irregular  or  metallic  objects  should  be  fastened  in  it. 
Frequently  brush  the  top  of  the  bench  and  clean  off  drops  of  glue, 
paint,  or  varnish,  immediately.  Make  no  pencil-marks  on  the  top, 
as  they  soil  the  work. 


CARE  OF  TOOLS.  57 

Have  on  the  bench  only  those  tools  to  be  used  in  the  work  at 
hand ;  all  others  must  be  put  away. 

The  tools  should  be  used  only  for  the  purpose  for  which  they 
are  intended ;  measures  and  marking-tools  not  to  be  used  as  levers, 
the  try-square  not  as  a  hammer  or  screw-driver,  nor  the  compasses 
as  a  boring-tool. 

The  polished  surfaces  of  steel  tools  should  be  carefully  pro- 
tected from  moisture  and  especially  from  perspiration.  To  prevent 
rust,  rub  the  bright  parts  frequently  with  a  mixture  of  paraffine 
and  vaseline,  or  equal  parts  of  beeswax  and  tallow.  If  rust  should 
appear,  brighten  the  spot  with  some  fine  emery-cloth  and  oil,  rub- 
bing always  in  the  direction  of  the  polish  scratches. 

In  working  up  old  material,  the  greatest  caution  must  be  taken 
to  prevent  sawing  and  planing  on  nails,  etc. 

In  mortising,  do  not  strike  the  chisel  with  the  hammer,  and  on 
no  occasion  strike  the  hammer  on  its  side.  Planes  must  have  their 
soles  frequently  rubbed  with  the  wax  or  paraffine  mixture  ;  always 
lay  them  on  their  side  or  on  thin  strips  on  the  bench. 

The  student  should  wear  a  long  apron,  without  pockets,  and 
made  of  strong  material.  Workmen  use  short  aprons,  and  while 
building  or  in  out-of-door  work  have  the  bottom  turned  up  and 
sewed,  to  make  a  large  pocket  for  nails  and  small  tools. 

The  work  must  be  carefully  protected  from  bruises  by  drop- 
ping, striking  with  hammer  or  other  tools,  and  from  chips  on  the 
bench. 

In  all  this  training  three  things  are  to  be  aimed  at:  First, 
accuracy,  which  in  wood- working  specially  applies  to  marking  and 
cutting  ;  second,  finish,  or  smoothness  ;  and,  third,  quickness  of  ex- 
ecution. 

After  marking  out  the  work,  it  should  be  inspected  and  ap- 
proved by  the  instructor  before  cuts  are  made.  Pencil-marks  must 
always  be  light  and  fine,  so  as  to  be  easily  removed. 

When  an  exercise  is  finished,  the  work  should  have  the  name 
or  number  of  the  student  and  the  date  written  on  it,  the  bench 
brushed  off,  and  all  tools  cleaned  and  put  away. 


58  WOOD-WORKING. 


Tools.    (Plate  A.) 

The  following  are  the  ordinary  measuring,  marking,  and  holding 
tools  : 

1.  Four-fold,  two-foot  rule.     The  graduations  of  inches  and  even 
fractions  of  an  inch  running  from  right  to  left. 

2.  Full  size  of  portion  of  inside  divided  into,  a,  sixteenths  ;  6,  one 
of  the  scales  usually  found  on  the  carpenter's  rule.     It  is  the  three- 
quarter  inch  to  one  foot  scale. 

3.  Portion  of  the  metric  rule.    This  rule  is  one  meter  long,  divided 
into  ten  segments,  each  one  decimeter,  which  is  divided  into  ten  cen- 
timeters, and  each  centimeter  into  ten  millimeters,  or  thousandths  of 
a  meter. 

4.  Full  size  of  one  end  of  the  metric  rule.     Note  that  the  centi- 
meters are  numbered  from  left  to  right. 

5.  A  circle  is  divided  into  three  hundred  and  sixty  degrees  ;  a 
quarter-circle,  a,  has  ninety  degrees,  and  measures  a  right  or  square 
angle.     The  arc,  b,  measures  a  thirty  degrees  opening  ;  c,  forty-five 
degrees  ;  d,  sixty  degrees. 

6.  Carpenter's  steel  square,  used  for  measuring  and  marking  tim- 
ber ;  the  long  side  twenty-four  inches,  the  short  side  sixteen  ;  the  outer 
edges  graduated  into  sixteenths,  the  inner  into  quarters  or  eighths. 

7.  Try-square,  rosewood  handle  faced  with  brass,  steel  blade. 

8.  Small  steel  square  for  testing  fine  work. 

9.  Sliding  T-bevel,  for  marking  or  testing  other  than  a  square  angle. 

10.  Carpenters  use  three  sizes  of  pencils  :  a  short  stick  of  plum- 
bago, three  quarters  inch  square,  a  large  pencil  (see  section),  and  an 
ordinary  No.  3. 

11.  Bench-knife ;  at  a,  round  taper-point  for  scratching  ;  at  6,  a 
knife-edge.  12.  Marking-gauge :  a,  the  bar  ;  6,  the  head. 

13.  Spring  compasses.  14.  Plumb-bob  and  line. 

15.  Spirit-level :  a  for  horizontal,  b  for  vertical  surfaces. 

16.  Bench-vise :  a,  bench-screw.    The  vise  is  adjusted  by  the  screw 
and  a  strip  containing  holes  or  notches,  fastened  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vise. 

17.  Bench-stop  of  hard  maple,  about  two  inches  square.     There  is 
a  great  variety  of  iron  bench-stops. 

18.  Pine  bench-hook.         19.  Iron  bench-dog.         20.  Iron  clamp. 
21.  Hand-screw.        22.  Oil-stone.        23.  Oil-slip.        24.  Oil-can. 
25.  Miter-box    with  one    side    projecting    to  catch  against  the 

bench-top.  26.  Glue-pot :  a,  for  the  water  ;  b,  for  the  glue. 

27.  Carpenter's  horse. 


TOOLS. 


59 


Plate  A. 


60  WOOD-WORKING. 


Tools.    (Plate  B.) 

The  chief  edge-tools  used  by  the  carpenter  are  : 

1.  Rip-saw  and  cross-cut,  apple-wood  or  beech  handles  and  steel 
blades. 

2.  Compass-saw. 

3.  Back-saw,  a  very  thin  blade  stiffened  by  an  iron  or  brass  back. 
Also  called  tenon-saw. 

4.  Frame-saw. 

5.  Float,  like  a  saw,  but  with  wide  teeth. 

6.  Chisel,  with  apple-wood  or  hickory  handle,  a  bevel  side,  and  a 
flat  side  or  face. 

7.  Gouge,  the  face  is  the  hollow  side. 

8.  Jack-plane :   a,  stock  ;   b,  top  ;   c,  sole,    in  front  the  toe  and 
behind  the  heel  ;  d,  handle  ;  e,  wedge,  driven  behind  the  throat ;  /, 
iron.     There  are  three  large  planes  used  by  carpenters  :  jack-plane, 
sixteen  inches  long,  sometimes  furnished  with  a  single  iron  ;  fore- 
plane,  twenty-two  inches  long;  and  jointer,  twenty -six  or  more  inches 
in  length.  9.  Plane-iron. 

10.  Cap.  11.  Double  iron,  cap  and  iron  united. 

12.   Wedge.  13.  Smoothing-plane. 

14.  Rabbet-plane,  of  which  there  are  several  forms,  some  with 
irons  the  full  width  of  the  sole,  some  with  a  small  side  cutter,  and 
some  with  stops.  15.  Iron  of  rabbet-plane. 

16,  17.  Show  the  shapes  of  paring  match-planes. 

18,  19.  Shapes  of  match-plane  irons. 

20.  Shape  of  the  sole  of  a  hollow. 

21.  Shape  of  a  round.  22.  Shape  of  a  sash-plane. 

23.  Plow ;  recent  form  with  iron  stock  and  apple-wood  handle  ; 
a,  iron,  secured  by  a  thumb-screw  ;  b,  fence ;  c,  stop  for  regulating 
depth  of  cut  ;  d,  handle.  24.  One  of  the  set  of  irons. 

25.  The  sole  with  its  iron,  which  when  attached  to  the  stock  makes 
a  fillister  or  rabbet-plane. 

26.  Scratch-plane  for  preparing  wood  before  gluing. 

27.  Portion  of  the  scratch-plane  iron,  showing  its  teeth,  full  size. 

28.  Brace,  with  head,  handle,  and  bit-holder.         29.   Twist-bit. 
30.  Center-bit.  31.  Auger-bit.  32.  Rose  countersink. 
33,  34.  Half-round  reamer.            35.  Draw-knife. 

36.  Spoke-shave.          37.  Screw-driver.          38.  Claw-hammer. 
39.  Bench-ax.  40.  Wooden  mallet. 

Besides  which  there  are  rasps,  files,  brad-awls,  and  many  other 
tools  for  special  purposes. 


TOOLS. 


61 


'late  B. 


WOOD-WORKING. 


Drawing.    (Plate  C.) 

The  distance  between  the  heavy  lines  in  Fig.  1,  measured  accord- 
ing to  the  scale,  three  quarters  of  an  inch  to  one  foot,  will  be  found  to 
be  2  feet  3f  inches.  This  measurement  may  be  expressed  by  using 
the  signs  for  feet  and  inches,  or  by  writing  a  letter  on  the  line  and 
referring  to  the  margin  or  notes  for  its  value.  Broken  lines  usually 
terminated  by  arrow-heads  are  used  to  show  the  extent  of  the  meas- 
urement. 

In  locating  a  circle,  give  the  distances  of  its  center  or  circumfer- 
ence from  two  known  points  (Fig.  2).  An  oblique  line  must  have 
both  ends  determined,  or  one  end,  its  length,  and  inclination 

(Fig.  2). 

The  drawings  of  any  object  should  consist  of  as  many  parts  as  are 
necessary  to  show  all  its  dimensions.  Usually  three  are  sufficient,  as 
in  Fig.  3,  in  which  a  is  the  elevation,  b  the  plan,  and  c  the  end-view 
or  side  elevation,  of  a  rectangular  block. 

Sections  through  an  object  are  frequently  shown  in  drawings.  If 
it  is  cut  across  the  grain,  it  is  shaded  by  straight  parallel  oblique  lines, 
a  and  &,  Fig.  4,  which  show  two  views  of  a  section  through  the  block, 
Fig.  3,  on  the  line  e  f.  Sections  with  the  grain  are  shaded  by  lines 
parallel  with  the  grain  ;  thus,  a  vertical  section  through  the  line  g  h 
of  Fig.  3  would  appear  as  at  c,  Fig.  4. 

Generally  one  perspective  of  an  object  will  show  a  sufficient  num- 
ber of  its  details  to  enable  a  workman  to  understand  its  form.  From 
a  true  perspective,  as  the  cube  in  Fig.  5,  measures  can  not  be  easily 
obtained  ;  therefore,  in  illustrating  the  following  exercises,  false  or 
parallel  perspective  is  employed. 

Fig.  6  represents  a  cube  drawn  in  right  and  left  parallel  perspec- 
tive. It  is  seen  that  surfaces  and  lines  parallel  with  the  plane  of  the 
paper  are  drawn  their  full  size  and  correct  shape.  The  receding  hori- 
zontal lines  are  represented  by  shorter  lines  inclined  at  an  angle  of 
45°.  To  obtain  this  shortened  length,  the  full  length  of  the  line  is 
laid  off  on  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  nearest  end  of  the  receding 
one,  and  from  the  upper  end  of  the  length  thus  obtained  an  oblique 
line  at  an  angle  of  30°  is  let  fall  ;  where  it  intersects  the  45°  line  is 
the  shortened  length,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Fig.  7,  a,  6,  and  c  show  the  elevations  and  plan  of  a  work-bench, 
drawn  to  a  scale  of  i"  to  V  ;  d  and  e  show  the  details  of  the  vise,  V 
to  1'.  The  irregular  line-shading  is  used  to  represent  wooden  sur- 
faces. 


LEA  WIN  a. 


63 


Plate  C. 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


64r  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 


Exercise  1  .—Use  of  the  Chisel. 

Material. — A  rough  block  of  pine,  about  2"  square,  and  8"  long1. 
Work. — 1.  To  cut  one  side  of  the  block  perfectly  smooth  and  flat. 
2,  To  cut  an  adjacent  side  smooth,  flat,  and  at  right  angles  with 
the  first  side. 

Fasten  the  block  lengthwise  in  the  vise,  so  that  about  1J"  of  it 
is  above  the  bench-top. 

Hold  the  chisel  in  the  right  hand,  the  cutting  edge  obliquely  to 
the  direction  of  the  grain,  and  inclined  from  the  block  a  sufficient 
amount  to  make  a  thin  shaving  (a,  #,  Fig.  1).  The  fingers  of  the 
left  hand  should  rest  on  the  face  of  the  blade,  and  guide  the  cutting 
edge.  If  additional  strength  is  required  to  force  the  chisel  through 
the  wood,  grasp  the  blade  in  the  left  hand. 

The  surface  is  pared  smooth  with  the  chisel  in  the  above  posi- 
tion. To  make  the  surface  flat,  turn  the  chisel  on  its  face,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  2,  a  and  b  ;  cut  very  thin  shavings  in  those  places 
where  the  wood  is  too  high,  and  avoid  cutting  in  the  low  places. 

To  test  the  surface,  hold  the  try-square  on  various  parts  of  the 
surface  in  the  two  positions,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  a  and  Z»,  and  note 
the  light  passing  under  the  square  at  the  low  places.  Handle  the 
try-square  with  the  left  hand.  If  its  edge  is  pressed  or  rubbed 
against  the  wood,  it  will  mark  the  high  places.  Look  along  the 
block  from  end  to  end,  to  see  whether  the  surface  is  twisted  or 
warped.  Also  pass  the  fingers  lightly  over  the  surface,  to  note  its 
irregularities. 

When  smooth  ^nd  flat,  this  surface  of  the  block  is  called  its 
face.  Turn  the  block  in  the  vise  and  fasten  with  its  face  outward. 
Pare  the  second  side  the  same  as  the  first,  testing  frequently  for 
flatness.  When  nearly  smooth  and  flat,  remove  the  block  and  test 
the  angle  between  the  sides  with  the  try-square,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 
Care  must  be  taken  to  hold  the  try-square  true  to  the  face. 

When  the  second  side  is  finished,  mark  it  and  the  face  with  a 
pencil,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  edge  of  the  block,  toward  which  the 
marks  point,  is  the  face-edge,  from  which  all  measures  are  made. 

In  using  any  sharp  tool,  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  cutting  the 
work-bench,  the  bench-stop,  and  particularly  the  hands.  Always 
keep  the  hands  behind  the  chisel-edge. 


CHISEL. 


65 


EX.I. 


66  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 

Exercise  2.— Use  of  the  Chisel  continued. 

Work.—  1.  To  mark  the  block  of  Exercise  1  for  width  of  face. 

2.  To  cut  the    remaining   sides  so  that  the  block  will  be  1£" 

square. 

3.  To  chamfer  the  edges. 

Fasten  the  block  in  the  vise  with  face  up  and  face-edge  out- 
ward. Hold  the  rule  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  so  that  it  measures  ex- 
actly !£"  from  the  face-edge,  and  make  a  small  mark  with  the 
pencil  along  the  end  of  the  rule.  Adjust  the  rule  by  bending  the 
first  finger  of  the  left  hand  underneath  it  against  the  face-edge 
(Fig.  2),  until  the  point  of  the  pencil,  held  against  the  end  of  the 
rule,  comes  on  the  measured  mark,  and  draw  the  rule  and  pencil 
along  the  block,  producing  a  line  parallel  to  and  1£"  from  the  face- 
edge.  Mark  the  side  opposite  to  the  face  of  the  block  in  the  same 
way. 

Pare  the  third  side  down  to  the  pencil  marks,  being  careful  not 
to  pass  below  them.  Mark  and  pare  the  fourth  side. 

In  cutting  end-wood  with  the  chisel,  considerable  force  is  neces- 
sary to  push  and  guide  the  tool.  Small  shavings  must  be  cut  at  a 
time,  and,  in  order  to  leave  a  smooth  surface  behind  it,  the  cutting 
edge  must  be  very  sharp.  Instead  of  cutting  straight  down,  the 
cut  is  oblique,  as  shown  by  the  arrow  in  Fig.  3,  or  the  chisel  is  in- 
clined and  pushed  in  the  direction  of  the  arrow  in  Fig.  4.  The 
block  should  rest  on  the  bench- hook  or  a  small  waste  board,  in  cut- 
ting the  end-wood  as  above. 

Lay  out  the  chamfer,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  1"  from  the  ends  of 
the  block,  and  f "  wide.  Mark  the  lines  parallel  with  the  face- 
edge,  with  the  rule  and  pencil,  and  the  cross  marks  with  the  try- 
square.'  Lay  out  the  ends  of  the  chamfer  according  to  the  meas- 
ures given  in  Figs.  6  and  7 ;  the  first  is  an  ogee,  and  the  second  a 
bevel. 

In  cutting  the  chamfer,  use  the  chisel  in  the  position  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  Ex.  1,  and  great  care  must  be  taken  to  avoid  cutting  beyo'nd 
the  pencil  marks.  Cut  the  ends  after  the  straight  portion  is 
finished. 

In  Fig.  8  are  shown  some  of  the  shapes  given  to  chamfer 
ends. 


CHISEL. 


67 


Ex.2. 


V 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


fig.  e 

f 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  8 


68  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 


Exercise  3.— Use  of  the  Gouge. 

Material. — A  block  of  dressed  pine,  2"  wide,  1£"  thick,  and  about  6" 

long. 
Work. — To  shape  a  molding  with  gouge  and  chisel. 

Lay  out  the  block  as  shown  in  Fig.  1,  using  the  measures 
as  given  in  Fig.  2.  The  form  of  the  molding,  an  ogee,  as  seen 
on  the  end  of  the  block,  #,  Fig.  1,  is  sketched  on  the  wood,  or, 
as  is  the  practice  in  shops,  is  marked  on  the  end  from  a  thin 
pattern,  Fig.  2.  The  lines  #,  #,  Fig.  1,  are  drawn  by  the  rule  and 
pencil. 

In  cutting  with  the  gouge,  apply  the  same  directions  given  for 
the  use  of  the  chisel.  Cut  small  shavings,  hold  the  gouge  obliquely, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  test  frequently  with  the  try-square,  and  avoid 
cutting  beyond  the  marks.  The  hollow  portion  should  be  cut  first 
with  the  gouge,  then  the  small  rectangular  piece  in  the  upper  part 
of  the  molding  cut  out  with  the  chisel,  leaving  what  is  called  a 
quirk,  and  lastly  the  top  rounded  by  the  chisel.  In  cutting  the 
quirk,  the  chisel  is  held  by  the  blade  and  drawn  along  the  pencil 
mark  on  the  top  of  the  block,  cutting  like  a  knife-edge,  and  the 
wood  pared  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  cut ;  the  chisel  is  then  again 
used  like  a  knife,  and  more  pared  off,  this  process  being  repeated 
until  the  entire  quirk  is  cut. 

To  return  the  molding,  the  end  is  given  the  same  form  as  the 
face,  «,  Fig.  4.  This  form  may  be  marked  on  the  end,  from  a  piece 
of  molding  held  against  it,  by  the  marking-point  of  the  bench- 
knife,  or  by  measuring  points  along  the  curve  with  the  rule,  and 
marking  through  them  with  the  pencil.  The  return  is  cut  down 
upon  a  waste  board  with  the  gouge  and  chisel.  In  cutting  across 
the  grain  with  the  gouge,  it  must  have  a  circular  motion,  which  is 
the  same  in  effect  as  the  oblique  cut  of  the  chisel. 

In  drawings,  the  form  of  a  molding  is  always  indicated  by  a  sec- 
tion of  it,  as  shown  at  c,  Fig.  4. 

In  Fig.  5  is  represented  a  core-box,  made  by  pattern-makers. 
It  is  an  example  of  gouge  work. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  molding  coped,  or  fitted  to  another.  The  shape 
of  the  end  of  a  molding  for  coping  may  be  obtained  by  sawing  the 
end  in  a  miter-box. 


GOUGE. 


69 


Ex.3. 


Fig.  3 


b\ 


Fig. 


H 


4 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


OF  THE          ''" 

UNIVERSITY 


70  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 


Exercise  4.— Use  of  the  Hammer. 

Material. — Sawed  block  of  pine,  4"  square  and  16"  long. 
Work. — To  strike  blows  on  the  block,  in  order  to  learn  the  right 
manner  of  holding  the  hammer. 

Grasp  the  handle  of  the  hammer  firmly,  whether  for  a  light  or 
a  heavy  blow,  and  hold  it  so  that  its  striking  face  is  parallel  with 
the  surface  of  the  wood  (Fig.  1).  Strike  two  or  three  light  blows 
at  one  end  of  the  block,  and  examine  the  impressions,  which  should 
be  like  those  of  a,  Fig.  2 ;  but  if  like  #,  Fig.  2,  the  hammer  must 
be  held  better.  Strike  two  or  three  again,  and  examine  the  prints 
of  the  hammer.  Now  strike  several  heavy  blows,  and  note  the  re- 
sult. It  is  a  common  fault  among  students  to  draw  the  handle 
down,  as  in  «,  Fig.  3,  in  striking  a  hard  blow,  and  in  correcting 
this  fault  to  give  the  opposite  result  (b,  Fig.  3).  If  the  print  shows 
that  the  hammer  falls  as  at  e,  Fig.  3,  then  it  is  not  held  sufficiently 
tight  in  the  hand. 

For  light  blows  a  wrist  motion  is  used,  for  ordinary  blows  a 
movement  from  the  elbow,  and  for  heavy  blows  a  shoulder  or  com- 
bined movement  of  all  the  parts  of  the  arm  is  necessary. 

Cut  nails  are  wedge-shaped,  and  if  driven  the  wrong  way  will 
spread  the  fibers  and  cause  the  wood  to  split ;  but  if  driven  the 
right  way,  break  and  compress  the  fibers  without  splitting  the  wood  : 
a  and  £,  Fig.  4,  show  the  cut  nail  in  its  proper  position,  c  and  d, 
Fig.  4,  the  wrong  position.  Pick  up  a  cut  nail  near  the  smaller 
end,  the  thumb  and  finger  will  instantly  determine  the  wedge  from 
the  parallel  sides  and  place  the  nail  properly  on  the  wood.  Some 
men  pick  up  the  nail  near  the  larger  end,  but  allow  the  third  finger 
to  determine  its  shape.  Wire  nails  do  not  need  examination  be- 
fore striking,  but  must  be  struck  a  direct  blow,  or  they  will  bend. 

Fig.  5  illustrates  a  peculiar  drawn  blow  of  the  hammer.  Start- 
ing at  d,  it  follows  the  direction  of  the  broken  line  in  its  course ; 
the  effect  of  which  is  to  bend  the  nail  in  such  a  manner  that  it 
forces  the  board  a  close  up  to  c,  as  shown  at  /.  This  blow  is  prac- 
ticed in  nailing  floors  and  clinching  wrought  nails.  If  the  point  «, 
Fig.  6,  be  struck  light,  drawn  blows,  it  will  curl,  as  shown  at  ~b. 
And  if  the  blows  are  now  drawn  less,  but  made  harder,  the  point 
will  sink  into  the  wood  as  at  d,  leaving  a  small  and  clean  depression. 


HAMMER. 


n 


Ex.  4. 


Fig. 


a\  \ 


Fig.  6 


72  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 


Exercise  5.— Use  of  the  Jack-Plane. 

Material. — The  block  used  in  the  previous  exercise. 
Work. — 1.  To  adjust  the  iron  of  the  plane. 

2.  To  plane  two  adjacent  surfaces  flat  and  square. 

In  adjusting  a  plane,  hold  it  in  the  left  hand,  with  the  thumb 
in  the  throat  and  pressed  against  the  iron,  as  in  Fig.  1.  Look 
along  the  sole  and  note  the  projection  of  the  iron,  as  at  #,  Fig.  2. 
The  iron  should  be  highest  in  the  middle,  and  gradually  curving 
until  it  disappears  near  the  edges  of  the  sole,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  3. 
If  it  projects  too  far,  strike  the  plane  lightly  on  the  hard  start,  c, 
Fig.  1,  until  it  recedes  the  required  amount.  If  the  iron  does  not 
project  far  enough,  strike  its  top,  #,  Fig.  1.  If  the  iron  projects 
too  much  on  one  side,  strike  the  iron  near  the  top  on  the  project- 
ing side.  When  the  iron  is  properly  adjusted,  give  the  wedge  a 
light  blow  to  secure  the  iron.  The  block  may  be  fastened  in  the 
vise. 

Hold  the  plane  straight  on  the  work,  the  left  hand  placed  in 
front  of  the  iron,  properly,  with  the  thumb  on  top  and  the  fingers 
on  the  side.  Stand  firmly  on  the  floor,  with  the  right  side  close  up 
to  the  bench,  behind  the  block.  At  the  beginning  of  the  stroke, 
press  down  with  the  left  hand  only ;  at  the  finish,  remove  the  left 
and  press  with  the  right.  Each  shaving  should  be  the  entire 
length  of  the  block. 

Examine  the  cut  made  by  the  iron ;  it  may  be  either  too  deep 
or  too  shallow.  If  the  cut  surface  is  rough  (&,  Fig.  5),  then  the 
plane  is  working  against  the  grain,  and  the  block  must  be  turned 
around.  If  smooth,  as  in  Fig.  6,  it  is  cutting  with  the  grain.  If 
the  shavings  do  not  curl  in  coming  out  of  the  throat,  examine 
the  position  of  the  end  of  the  cap ;  for  the  jack-plane  £"  to  J-" 
back  is  proper,  and  for  other  planes  about  tlg-"  (#,  Fig.  5,  and.  c, 
Fig.  6). 

Plane  out  all  the  saw  marks  or  weather  stains,  and  examine  the 
surface  for  flatness  and  warping,  as  in  Exercise  1.  Plane  and 
square  the  adjacent  side,  and  mark  the  face-edge. 

In  planing  a  warped  board,  the  plane  is  sometimes  pushed  ob- 
liquely across  the  board,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  in  Fig.  7,  until 
flat,  and  then  finished  with  straight  strokes. 


JACK-PLANE. 


Ex.  5. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 


74  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 


Exercise  6.— Plane  continued,  and  Marking-Gauge. 

Material. — Same  as  before. 

Work. — 1.  To  smooth  the  two  planed  surfaces  of  the  block  with  the 
smoothing-plane. 

2.  To  mark  with  the  gauge  for  the  third  side. 

3.  To  plane  the  third  and  fourth  sides  of  the  block. 

The  smoothing-plane  is  adjusted  the  same  as  the  jack-plane,  ex- 
cepting that  its  iron  is  drawn  back  by  a  blow  on  the  back  of  the 
stock.  Its  iron  should  just  show,  as  in  #,  Fig.  3,  Ex.  5,  and  should 
remove  a  very  thin  shaving.  Smooth  the  face  and  adjacent  side  of 
the  block,  testing  with  the  try-square,  and  marking  over  again  the 
face-edge. 

Adjust  the  gauge,  holding  it  in  the  left  hand,  thumb  on  the 
head ;  move  the  bar  so  that  the  marking-point  is  exactly  3£" 
from  the  head ;  fasten  the  bar  with  the  thumb-screw.  In  marking, 
hold  the  head  in  the  left  hand,  thumb  against  the  bar  near  the 
point  (#,  Fig.  1).  Incline  the  gauge  as  shown  in  the  figure, 
until  it  makes  a  faint  mark ;  press  the  head  of  the  gauge  firmly 
against  the  face-edge,  and  mark  th'e  entire  length  of  the  block. 
Repeat,  making  the  mark  deeper,  until  it  is  sufficiently  distinct. 
If  the  head  of  the  gauge  is  not  pressed  against  the  face-edge,  or  if 
the  point  is  forced  in  deeply  at  first,  it  is  apt  to  follow  the  grain, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2,  where  the  gauge  makes  a  fault  from  a  to  b. 
Gauge  all  around  3^"  from  the  face  of  the  block,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  3. 

Plane  the  edges  of  the  third  side  down  to  the  gauge-marks,  as 
in  Fig.  4;  these  beveled  surfaces  serve  as  guides.  Then  plane 
down  the  middle,  being  very  careful  not  to  go  beyond  the  gauge- 
marks. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  manner  of  truing  the  edge  of  a  board  by  using 
one  side  of  the  edge  of  the  plane-iron.  In  the  figure,  c  is  the  stock, 
a  the  high  part  of  the  edge.  The  fingers  of  the  left  hand  are  used 
as  a  guide,  and  pass  along  the  side  of  the  board  at  b. 

Fig.  6  shows  one  of  the  best  forms  of  modern  planes ;  its  adjust- 
ments are  made  with  screws  and  levers :  a  and  b  fasten  the  iron,  c 
moves  the  iron  sideways,  d  regulates  the  depth  of  the  cut,  e  is  the 
iron,  and  /  its  cap. 


MAKEING-GAUGR 


Ex.6. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


76  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 

Exercise  7.— Use  of  the  Rip-Saw, 

Material.— Squared  block  of  the  previous  exercises. 
Work. — To  saw  the  block  into  boards  which  may  be  planed  to  %" 
thick. 

Examine  the  rip-saw ;  note  that  its  teeth  are  about  four  and 
a  half  to  an  inch ;  the  angular  opening  60°,  and  the  slant  of  the 
tooth  about  90°  to  the  direction  of  the  cut.  In  Fig.  1  the  teeth 
are  shown  slanting  toward  the  point,  and  are  called  hooked.  At  #, 
Fig.  2,  the  teeth  are  square,  and  at  1)  are  raked.  The  teeth  are 
smaller  near  the  point  of  the  saw.  The  face  of  the  teeth  may  be 
cut  square  across, 'as  at  «,  Fig.  3,  or  obliquely  as  at  b.  In  order 
that  the  saw  may  not  bind,  its  teeth  are  set — that  is,  the  points  are 
bent,  as  at  #,  #,  c,  Fig.  3,  alternately  to  one 
side  and  the  other.  The  effect  of  the  teeth 
on  the  wood-fibers  shows  that  the  action  is 
tearing.  Fig.  4  exhibits  a  magnified  view 
of  a  section  through  a  saw-kerf 

Gauge  all  around  the  block  £"  from  its 
face-  Fasten  the  block  vertically  in  the 
vise  with  its  face  outward.  Hold  the  saw 

firmly  in  the  right  hand,  against  the  thumb  of  the  left  acting  as 
a  guide  (a,  Fig.  7),  and  about  -J"  beyond  the  gauge-mark.  Move 
the  saw  with  short  strokes,  back  and  forth,  a  little  above  the  wood ; 
let  it  gradually  approach  and  enter  the  wood.  The  weight  of  the 
saw  must  be  sustained  by  the  right  hand  while  starting ;  after  it 
has  entered  fairly  into  the  wood,  let  the  saw  cut  by  its  own  weight. 
Go  slowly,  and  push  the  saw  as  straightly  as  possible.  When  the 
saw  has  penetrated  as  far  as  shown  at  #,  Fig.  8,  change  to  the  op- 
posite side  and  saw  down  as  shown  at  I ;  change  again,  and  con- 
tinue this  alternation,  keeping  the  saw  all  the  while  about  -J"  from 
the  gauge-mark. 

In  starting  the  saw,  many  workmen  would  begin  at  #,  Fig.  7, 
and  draw  the  saw  backward,  resting  on  the  wood.  The  saw  cuts 
quickest  if  pushed  at  right  angles  to  the  grain,  but  if  inclined,  as 
in  Fig.  6,  requires  less  force.  In  sawing  boards,  use  the  horses  for 
supports  and  test  the  position  of  the  saw,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  until 
practice  gives  a  correct  habit. 


EIP-SA  W. 


Ex.  7. 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  7 


78  ORDINARY  TOOLS. 

Exercise  8.— Use  of  the  Cross-Cut. 

Material.—  Block  of  pine,  4"  square  and  16"  long. 
Work.—l.  Plane  the  block  to  3f "  square. 
2.  Practice  sawing  with  cross-cut. 

Examine  the  cross-cut,  and  note  the  small,  pointed  teeth,  shown 
enlarged  at  «,  Fig.  1 ;  look  down  on  the  tops  of  the  teeth ;  they  ap- 
pear as  at  #,  Fig.  1 ;  look  along  the  saw  from  the  handle  toward 
the  point ;  a  depression  is  seen,  made  by  the  peculiar  shape  and  set 
of  the  points  of  the  teeth  (c,  Fig.  1). 

Plane  the  block  carefully  to  3f "  square,  observing  instruction 
in  Exercises  5  and  6. 

Measure  and  mark  a  point  on  the  face-edge,  J-"  from  the  right 
end.  Hold  the  try-square,  as  shown  at  #,  Fig.  2,  firmly  against  the 
face-edge  and  coinciding  with  the  pencil-mark.  Draw  a  pencil- 
mark  along  the  try-square.  Then  place  the  try-square  in  the  posi- 
tion shown  at  #,  Fig.  2,  and  again  mark  along  the  square. 

Place  the  block  on  the  bench-hook,  with  the  marks  toward  you 
(Fig.  3).  Hold  the  saw  as  directed  in  the  previous  exercise,  the 
thumb  used  as  a  guide,  and  start  the  cut  in  the  same  way,  begin- 
ning at  the  front  or  back  of  the  face  and  on  the  pencil-mark.  Let 
the  weight  of  the  saw  do  the  cutting ;  give  all  your  attention  to 
guiding.  Avoid  letting  the  point  of  the  saw  drop  at  the  end  of 
the  stroke.  Keep  the  movement  of  the  teeth  as  parallel  as  pos- 
sible with  the  bench-top.  Examine  the  sawed  surface. 

Repeat  the  exercise,  this  time  using  the  knife  for  marking,  and 
guiding  the  saw  so  that  the  kerf  is  to  the  right  of  the  knife-mark. 
In  Fig.  4,   a   represents  the  knife-mark 
and  c  the  kerf.     Repeat  again,  this  time 
sawing  to  the  left  of  the  knife-mark,  as 
at  #,  Fig.  4 ;  this  last  piece  should  be  ex- 
actly |"  thick.     Repeat  the  exercise  with 
oblique  cuts,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5,  always 
6  measuring  and  adjusting  the  try-square  on 

the  face-edge.  Fig.  6  shows  the  appear- 
ance under  the  microscope  of  a  section  oj:  pine-wood  which  has 
been  sawed  by  a  cross-cut.  The  fibers  are  bent  and  broken  by  the 
sharp  points,  showing  the  tearing  action  of  the  tool. 


CROSS-CUT. 


79 


Ex.8. 


l/NjyNJVNJ^^^ 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  3 


a        a 


Fig.  4 


80  SHARPENING   TOOLS. 

Sharpening  Tools.    (Plate  D.) 

WITH  THE  OIL-STONE. 

To  sharpen  or  whet  a  chisel,  moisten  the  oil-stone  with  a  few 
drops  of  oil ;  hold  the  chisel  by  the  blade  in  the  right  hand,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  1,  two  or  three  fingers  of  the  left  pressing  on  the  face  of  the 
chisel  near  the  edge,  a.  The  chisel  is  moved  backward  and  forward 
the  entire  length  of  the  stone,  and  maintained  strictly  at  a  certain 
angle,  about  30°  to  35°,  depending  on  the  kind  of  chisel  and  the 
work  to  be  done  with  it ;  for  paring,  thinner  angles,  and  for  mortising, 
thicker  angles  are  used. 

In  the  forward  movement  (a  to  5,  Fig.  2),  the  tool  must  be  pressed 
hard  on  the  stone,  but  lightly  as  it  is  drawn  back  ;  and  the  surface 
formed  at  the  cutting  edge  should  be  flat,  as  shown  at  c. 

Avoid  a  rocking  motion,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  in  which  the  tool  is 
started  at  too  great  an  angle  (a),  which  becomes  less  as  it  moves 
along,  ending  in  an  angle  much  too  small,  as  at  c.  This  fault,  which 
is  a  very  common  one,  gives  to  the  edge  a  curved  shape,  as  shown  at 
d,  Fig.  3. 

After  the  stone  has  worn  the  steel  down  to  the  edge,  the  chisel  is 
turned  on  its  face,  flat  on  the  stone,  and  moved  forward  lightly  once 
or  twice  to  remove  the  wire-edge  caused  by  the  grinding. 

To  sharpen  a  plane-iron,  hold  it  the  same  as  the  chisel,  turned  so 
as  to  bring  the  corners  of  the  iron  within  the  limits  of  the  stone  ; 
press  with  considerable  force  in  the  forward  strokes,  and  keep  the 
iron  strictly  at  its  proper  angle,  about  35°. 

The  iron  of  the  jack-plane  must  have  a  rocking  motion  sidewise, 
so  as  to  preserve  its  curved  edge. 

When  the  stone  is  small  or  narrow,  a  circular  motion  is  given  to 
the  iron,  as  at  a,  Fig.  4.  For  the  finishing  touches,  the  iron  is  pushed 
forward  lightly,  raised  from  the  stone  coming  back,  and  removing 
the  wire-edge,  as  in  the  case  of  the  chisel. 

To  sharpen  a  gouge,  hold  it  and  the  oil-slip  as  shown  in  Fig.  5. 
Give  the  slip  a  back-and-forward  motion  while  the  tool  is  turned  to 
bring  all  parts  of  the  edge  to  bear  on  the  stone.  Remove  the  wire- 
edge  with  the  round  side  of  the  slip. 

Should  the  surface  of  the  oil-stone  become  hollow  or  uneven,  it 
may  be  made  flat  by  grinding  with  fine  sand  or  medium  emery  on  a 
flat  stone  or  cast-iron  plate.  To  remove  oil  which  has  hardened  in 
the  pores  of  the  surface,  the  stone  may  be  placed  in  boiling,  soapy 
water,  or  in  some  strong  alkaline  solution. 


OILSTONE. 


81 


Plate  D. 


82  SHARPENING   TOOLS. 

Sharpening  Tools.    (Plate  E.) 

ON  THE  GRINDSTONE. 

The  grindstone  must  be  kept  constantly  wet  with  water  while  in 
use.  Of  the  many  positions  in  which  the  tool  may  be  held  against 
the  grindstone,  that  shown  at  a,  Fig.  1,  is  the  easiest  for  a  student. 
The  handle,  held  in  the  right  hand,  rests  on  a  board  at  6,  the  bevel  is 
pressed  against  the  stone  at  c,  with  the  palm  of  the  left  hand,  which 
is  applied  to  the  face  of  the  tool.  The  angle  of  the  ground  surface  is 
regulated  by  moving  the  handle  nearer  to  or  away  from  the  stone. 

At  c?,  Fig.  1,  the  angle  of  the  bevel  is  regulated  by  moving  the 
handle  on  the  rest,  and  maintained  by  a  finger  held  against  the  rest. 
At  e,  Fig.  1,  and  6,  Fig,  2,  are  shown  positions  used  by  workmen. 

The  tool  must  not  be  held  on  one  part  of  the  stone,  but  con- 
stantly moved  so  as  to  wear  the  face  of  the  stone  evenly,  as  shown  at 
a,  Fig  2. 

For  chisels,  gouges,  and  planes,  the  angle  is  tested  by  a  gauge, 
shown  full  size  in  Fig.  3,  made  of  steel  or  brass,  with  an  opening  of 
20°  to  25°,  as  shown  at  c,  the  value  of  the  opening  stamped  on  the 
gauge,  and  a  hole  at  one  end  for  a  small  chain  fastened  to  the  grind- 
stone-frame. The  bevel  of  the  tool,  6,  is  placed  in  the  opening,  c, 
and  its  angle  tested  ;  if  too  thin,  the  handle,  6,  Fig.  1,  must  be  drawn 
away  from  the  stone,  or  brought  nearer  if  too  thick.  When  once 
determined  a  mark  may  be  made  on  the  rest  at  &,  and  the  grinding 
continued  until  the  bevel  is  brought  down  to  the  face.  The  edge  is 
then  tested  with  the  try-square. 

Care  must  be  taken  to  preserve  the  correct  shape  of  plane-irons 
(see  a,  6,  Fig.  3,  Ex.  5),  and  particularly  the  edge,  which  must  be 
square. 

Gouges  are  ground  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  so  that  the  edge  slants,  and 
is  square  to  the  whetted  surface,  as  shown  by  c,  d,  Fig.  4.  For  spe- 
cial work  some  gouges  are  ground  just  the  opposite  to  the  ordinary 
tool — that  is,  with  the  edge  on  the  outer  surface,  at  6,  instead  of  a, 
Fig.  4. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  simple  means  of  obtaining  the  bevel  surface 
on  a  chisel.  It  is  supported  on  the  rest,  6,  and  held  against  the  side 
of  an  emery-wheel.  The  wheel  should  be  constantly  oiled  or  wet 
with  water. 

To  remove  hollows  or  grooves  in  the  grindstone,  hold  a  wrought- 
iron  bar,  pointing  downward,  resting  on  the  support  6,  Fig.  1,  and 
with  its  end  cutting  into  the  high  parts  of  the  face  ;  after  which, 
smooth  the  stone  by  holding  a  coarse  sandstone  against  it. 


GRINDSTONE. 


83 


Plate  E, 


Fig.  5 


84  SHARPENING   TOOLS. 

Sharpening  Tools.    (Plate  F.) 

SAW-FILING. 

The  easiest  saw  to  file  is  the  rip-saw,  with  teeth  square  across  and 
standing  at  90°.  Fasten  the  saw  in  the  clamps  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 
Pass  a  flat,  smooth  file  lightly  over  the  teeth  first,  to  reduce  all  the 
tops  to  the  same  level.  Examine  the  teeth  carefully,  and  deter- 
mine by  the  amount  removed  from  the  points  which  of  them  need 
the  most  filing,  and  whether  on  the  square  or  beveled  side.  If  the 
teeth  are  spaced  irregularly,  each  filing  should  tend  to  correct  the 
fault. 

The  triangular  file  is  held  in  the  right  hand,  its  point  guided  by 
the  thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  left.  For  filing  large  teeth  the  file 
should  have  slanting  furrows  (6,  Fig.  2)  ;  for  small  teeth,  finer  and 
less  oblique  furrows  (c,  Fig.  2).  Pressure  is  applied  only  during  the 
forward  stroke  of  the  file,  it  being  raised  above  the  tooth  or  touching 
very  lightly  as  it  comes  back,  because  the  brittle  cutting  edges, 
which  are  shaped  as  at  a,  Fig.  2,  are  easily  rubbed  off,  and  the  file 
may  be  ruined  by  a  careless  back-stroke.  The  file  should  cut  in  the 
direction  of  the  set,  as  at  b  and  c,  Fig.  3.  One  or  two  strokes  are 
usually  sufficient  to  sharpen  a  tooth.  The  first,  third,  fifth,  and  so  on, 
are  filed  first,  then  the  saw  is  turned  and  the  remainder  filed.  If  the 
teeth  are  oblique,  as  in  Fig.  4,  then  the  direction  of  the  file  must  be 
adjusted  to  fit  this  inclination,  as  shown  by  the  arrows. 

In  the  cross-cut,  the  file  is  held  pointing  upward  and  toward  the 
handle  of  the  saw,  as  shown  by  the  arrows  a,  a,  and  6,  6,  Fig.  5.  As 
this  always  leaves  a  wire-edge  on  each  tooth,  some  prefer  to  file 
exactly  in  the  opposite  direction — that  is,  pointing  downward  and 
toward  the  point  of  the  saw. 

After  filing,  the  saw  should  be  set.  For  this  important  operation 
a  good  instrument  must  be  used.  Crude  instruments,  such  as  a 
block  of  wood,  a  nail  punch,  and  a  hammer,  in  the  hands  of  an  inex- 
perienced workman,  are  more  likely  to  ruin  the  saw  than  to  benefit 
it.  The  teeth  must  be  set  with  great  regularity,  in  order  to  secure  a 
smooth  and  straight  cut.  Morrill's  instrument,  shown  in  Figs.  6  and 
7,  acts  by  bending  the  point  of  the  tooth  with  the  punch  c,  the  amount 
of  the  set  being  regulated  by  adjusting  a  and  b. 

Bip-saws,  and  also  cross-cuts  for  fine  work,  should  have  very  little 
set,  and  the  points  only  of  the  teeth  should  be  bent. 

After  setting  the  teeth,  they  should  be  finally  trued,  by  rubbing 
the  oil-stone  lightly  on  the  sides  of  the  points. 


SAW-FILING. 


85 


Plate  F. 


86  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise  9.— Construction  of  a  Half-Joint. 

Material. — Stick  of  sawed  pine,  3"  square  and  4"  long. 
Work. — To  lay  out  and  make  a  half -joint. 

Plane  the  stick  to  exactly  2f"  square,  and  mark  the  face-edge. 
Saw  into  two  equal  lengths  after  marking  with  the  try-square  and 
knife.  When  near  the  finish  of  the  saw-cut,  support  the  ends  to 
prevent  the  stick  from  breaking,  as  shown  at  #,  Fig.  1. 

Set  the  marking-gauge  to  If" ;  mark  on  the  ends  just  cut  and 
along  the  sides  2f ",  keeping  the  head  of  the  gauge  always  on  the 
face  of  the  piece.  These  gauge-marks  may  be  made  without  turn- 
ing the  pieces  over,  but  allowing  them  to  remain  on  the  bench> 
face  up,  as  shown  in  &,  a,  Fig.  2. 

Now  mark  with  the  try-square  and  knife  2f"  from  the  end, 
above  the  gauge-mark  on  one  piece,  and  below  the  gauge-mark  on 
the  other,  as  at  #,  #,  Fig.  2,  always  adjusting  the  handle  of  the  try- 
square  to  the  face  of  the  stick. 

The  parts  to  be  removed,  shaded  «,  «,  in  Fig.  3,  are  now  sawed 
out,  using  the  rip-saw  first  and  the  cross-cut  to  finish.  These 
parts,  which  are  waste  pieces,  must  contain  the  saw- kerfs,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3. 

If  the  gauge  and  try-square  have  been  properly  adjusted  to  the 
face  of  the  pieces,  and  the  saw-kerfs  accurately  kept  in  the  waste 
wood,  the  sticks  will  fit  together,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  so  as  to  make 
the  face  even,  or  flush. 

If  the  saws  have  not  cut  accurately,  trim  down  carefully  to  the 
gauge  and  square-marks  with  the  chisel. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  pieces  placed  at  right  angles,  in  which  posi- 
tion they  should  fit  as  well  as  in  Fig.  4. 

The  same  method  of  marking  and  cutting  is  employed  to  make 
the  scarf-joints,  of  which  Figs.  6,  7,  and  8  are  examples.  In  the 
joint  (Fig.  8)  the  pieces  are  forced  together  by  the  key  #,  which  is 
slightly  wedge-shaped. 

The  joints  (Figs.  9  and  10)  used  in  building  trusses  may  be 
made  entirely  with  the  saws,  or  with  the  saws  and  chisel.  In 
practice,  one  piece  of  such  joints  is  marked  and  cut  first,  laid 
in  proper  position  on  the  other,  which  is  then  marked  from  the 
first. 


HALF-JOIST. 


87 


Ex.  9. 


« 


Fig.  1 


Ag. 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  G 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  9 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  10 


88  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise  '1 0.— Modified   Forms  of  the  Half-Joint. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  pieces  in  position  and  marked  for  a  lap-joint, 
commonly  used  in  building  frame  houses ;  Fig.  2,  the  upper  piece 
cut  to  receive  the  vertical  one.  In  nailing  the  pieces  together,  the 
vertical  one  is  forced  up  against  the  shoulder,  a,  of  the  horizontal. 
This  shoulder  adds  to  the  firmness  of  the  joint,  and  the  rabbet 
gives  more  secure  nailing.  The  rabbet  for  timbers  should  have 
about  the  proportions  shown  in  the  figures. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  ordinary  rabbeted-joint  of  boards  to  be  united 
by  nailing.  In  laying  out  the  rabbet,  the  mark  a,  Fig.  4,  must  be 
made  with  try-square  and  knife,  the  mark  b  with  the  marking- 
gauge;  saw  on  the  mark  a  with  the  cross-cut,  and  then  chisel 
down  the  rabbet  to  the  mark  b.  The  horizontal  piece  may  project 
slightly  over  the  vertical,  if  it  is  intended  to  be  finished  with  a 
plane. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  grooved  joint ;  the  groove  is  marked  with  try- 
square  and  knife,  the  depth  at  the  ends  gauged.  It  is  cut  out 
with  saw  and  chisel.  This  joint  is  used  where  there  is  apt  to  be  a 
displacement  sidewise,  and  also  to  make  water-tight  structures. 
In  the  latter  case  the  groove  is  made  a  little  narrower  than  the 
thickness  of  the  tongue,  which  is  slightly  chamfered.  The  groove 
and  tongue  are  then  coated  with  white-lead  and  forced  together. 

Fig.  6  is  a  modified  form  of  the  grooved  joint.  Where  there  is 
not  enough  wood  beyond  the  groove  to  give  sufficient  strength, 
the  groove  may  be  made  smaller,  usually  half  size.  It  is  cut  the 
same  as  that  of  Fig.  5,  or  with  a  rabbet-plane. 

The  difficulty  of  giving  a  good  appearance  to  joints  like  Fig.  3 
leads  to  various  devices  for  finishing,  the  commonest  of  which  is 
the  bead.  This  is  worked  on  the  edge  by  a  plane,  the  shape  of 
which  for  cutting  a  J"  bead  is  shown  in  Fig.  8  ;  the  iron  cuts  only 
the  depth  $,  and  the  round  b  ;  the  portion  c  of  the  sole  acts  as  a 
stop  to  regulate  the  depth,  and  d  as  a  guide  against  the  edge  of  the 
board.  The  form  cut  is  shown  at  #,  Fig.  9,  and  is  called  a  single 
bead  ;  by  reversing  the  plane  and  cutting  on  the  other  side,  a 
double  bead  is  formed,  as  at  #,  Fig.  9. 

Fig.  7  shows  applications  of  the  bead.  Although  either  piece 
may  be  beaded,  it  is  customary  to  bead  the  tongued  edge  of  a  board 


HALF-JOINT. 


89 


Ex.  10. 


Fig.  1 


Fig. 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  9 


90  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 

Exercise    1  1  .—Construction  of  a  Mortise-Joint. 

Materials. — The  sticks  of   Exercise  9,  after  cutting  off   the  half- 
joint. 
Work. — To  unite  the  pieces  with  a  through  mortise-joint. 

Hold  the  pieces  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  1,  with  the  faces 
toward  you.  The  upper  is  to  have  a  tenon  formed  on  its  end,  and 
the  lower  a  mortise  cut  into  it. 

Adjust  the  upper  piece  2"  from  the  end  of  the  lower ;  mark 
with  a  sharp  pencil  the  width  of  the  upper  piece  on  the  face-edge 
of  the  lower  (#,  #,  Fig.  1).  With  these  points  as  guides,  mark  with 
the  try-square  and  pencil  on  three  sides  of  the  mortise-piece,  as 
shown  at  #,  #,  Fig.  2 ;  and  with  the  try-square  and  knife,  mark  all 
around  the  tenon-piece  3J"  from  its  end,  as  at  #,  b. 

Set  the  gauge  at  -J-",  and  mark  on  the  end  and  sides  of  the 
tenon-piece,  and  on  the  top  and  bottom  of  the  mortise-piece,  as  at 
#,  #,  Fig.  3.  Then  set  the  gauge  at  1-J"  and  mark  between  the  same 
limits  as  before,  producing  the  lines  #,  Z>,  Fig.  4.  Now  place  the 
tenon-piece  on  the  mortise-piece,  and  note  that  the  marks  corre- 
spond exactly. 

Saw  the  tenon,  observing  the  instructions  in  Exercise  9,  in  re- 
gard to  the  saw-kerf  and  waste  wood.  In  order  to  enter  the  mor- 
tise, the  tenon  («,  Fig.  5)  must  have  its  edges  removed  by  chamfer- 
ing, as  at  b  ;  the  measures,  shown  at  c,  Fig.  5,  are  marked  with  the 
pencil  and  rule,  and  the  chamfer  cut  with  the  chisel. 

To  cut  out  the  mortise,  bore  with  the  brace  and  J"  center-bit 
two  holes  in  the  mortise-piece,  as  at  «,  #,  Fig.  6,  about  one  half 
way  through ;  then  turn  the  piece  over  and  bore  down  to  meet 
the  first  holes.  With  the  chisel  and  mallet,  remove  the  part  I  be- 
tween the  holes,  cutting  first  one  side  then  the  other  with  the  edge 
of  the  chisel,  parallel  to  the  grain,  c,  and  with  the  bevel  side  down, 
so  as  to  throw  out  the  chips.  Next  turn  the  chisel,  and  cut  down 
the  ends  of  the  mortise  as  at  d,  leaving  a  margin  of  wood  for 
finishing. 

The  mortise  is  now  fitted  for  the  tenon  by  cutting  away  the 
margin  (#,  #,  Fig.  7)  and  paring  the  sides  until  the  tenon  passes 
snugly  through.  Test  the  sides  of  the  mortise  for  flatness  with  the 
blade  of  the  try-square. 


MORTISE-JOIST. 


91 


Ex.  ii. 


Fig.  i 


Figr. 


Fig.  3 


Fig. 


©»© 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  7 


/  CFTHE 

UNIVERSITY 


92  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise   12.— Pinning  the  Mortise- Joint. 

Material. — The  joint  of  Exercise  11,  and  a  piece  of  hard  wood,  f " 

square  and  about  5"  long. 
Work. — To  fasten  the  tenon  in  the  mortise  with  a  pin. 

Bore  with  a  f "  auger-bit,  through  the  face  of  the  piece  and 
mortise,  V  below  the  face-edge,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  line  a  is 
marked  by  pencil  and  rule,  and  the  point  b  marked  in  the  middle 
of  this  line  for  starting  the  point  of  the  bit.  The  hole  is  not  bored 
all  the  way,  but  when  the  point  shows  through,  as  at  «,  Fig.  2,  turn 
the  piece  around  and  bore  from  that  side  to  complete  the  hole.  By 
this  means  a  clean  cut  is  made  on  both  sides  of  the  piece.  Test 
the  auger-bit  with  the  try-square,  to  keep  it  straight  until  fairly 
started  into  the  wood. 

Place  the  tenon  in  the  mortise  and  mark  the  center  of  the  hole 
on  it  with  the  point  of  the  bit.  Remove  the  tenon,  and  start  the 
bit  about  fa"  nearer  the  shoulder.  The  hole  thus  bored  (Fig.  3)  is 
not  in  a  line  with  that  of  the  mortise,  as  shown  at  «,  Fig.  4,  but 
when  the  pin  is  forced  through,  the  pieces  are  brought  closer 
together,  forming  a  stiff er  and  stronger  joint. 

The  pin  is  planed  to  f "  square,  chamfered  with  plane  or  chisel 
to  an  octagonal  shape,  rounded  and  pointed  with  the  chisel,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  5,  which  is  just  one  half  size.  In  practice,  the  pin 
is  driven  in  flush  with  the  face  of  the  mortise-piece,  the  protruding 
portion  being  either  allowed  to  remain,  or  sawed  off  close. 

For  large  through  mortise- joints,  such  as  are  seen  in  the  heavy 
frames  of  barns  and  mills,  two  oak  pins  are  used,  as  at  #,  Fig.  6. 
Sometimes  the  pins  are  intended  to  act  like  wedges  and  force  the 
parts  together,  as  shown  at  &,  Fig.  6.  This  joint  is  common  in 
machine-frames. 

Formerly,  when  pins  were  used  to  a  greater  extent,  they  were 
compressed  by  being  forced  through  a  tapering  hole  in  an  iron 
block.  This  had  the  effect  of  binding  the  pin  firmly  in  the 
joint. 

Fig.  7  is  an  example  of  a  double  mortise,  and  is  used  for  secur- 
ing the  central  leg  of  a  table  to  the  top.  It  is  sometimes  made 
without  the  shoulders  «,  «,  which  is  bad  practice,  because  they  give 
greater  stability  to  the  joint. 


PINSING  A   MORTISE. 


93 


Ex.  12. 


JX 


V  \ 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


\ 


Fig. 


Fig.  4 


b 

O 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  6 


f.  7 


94:  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise  1 3.— Construction  of  a  Stub-Mortise. 

Material. — The  same  pieces  as  before,  after  removing  the  pinned 

joint.    ' 
Work.—  To, lay  out,  cut,  and  fasten  a  stub-mortise  joint. 

Use  the  same  methods  and  measurements  in  marking  as  in 
Exercise  11,  except  that  the  tenon  is  to  be  J"  long,  and  the  mortise 
1"  deep,  and  1"  from  the  end  of  the  piece.  Fig.  1  represents  the 
work  laid  out,  the  lines  a,  «,  marked  with  try-square  and  knife, 
and  the  lines  #,  #,  with  the  marking-gauge.  After  cutting  the 
tenon,  a  very  small  chamfer,  about  -J",  may  be  cut  on  its  end  with- 
out marking. 

The  holes  bored  by  the  center-bit  should  not  be  more  than  1" 
deep.  When  a  large  number  of  holes  are  to  be  bored  the  same 
depth,  a  wooden  stop  is  made  by  boring  a  hole  through  a  block  of 
wood,  so  that  the  stem  of  the  bit  will  pass  through  it,  but  of 
proper  thickness  to  prevent  the  tool  cutting  beyond  the  required 
amount. 

In  removing  chips  from  the  mortise,  do  not  pry  with  the  chisel 
on  the  sides  and  ends.  In  testing  the  mortise,  hold  the  chisel 
against  the  side,  and  note  whether  it  is  square  or  inclined.  The 
mortise  and  tenon  should  fit  very  snugly. 

With  the  tenon  in  place,  bore  with  a  |-"  auger-bit  a  hole  through 
the  bottom  of  the  mortise-piece,  and  into  the  middle  of  the  tenon- 
piece  about  3",  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  is  to  receive  an  iron  bolt. 
At  If"  from  the  shoulder,  and  on  the  inside  of  the  tenon-piece 
(«,  Fig.  3),  cut  with  chisels  a  hole  large  enough  to  receive  the  nut 
(b,  Fig.  3)  of  the  bolt.  The  head,  d,  of  the  bolt  should  have  a 
washer,  c,  to  prevent  it  crushing  the  wood.  In  some  cases  it  is 
necessary  to  sink  the  head  flush  with  the  surface,  as  at  #,  Fig.  4. 

The  stub-mortise  is  extensively  used  in  heavy  machine-frames. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  blind-mortise,  used  in  making  furniture.  Some- 
times the  end  of  the  tenon  is  spread  with  wedges,  as  at  «,  #,  Fig.  6. 

Fig.  7  shows  a  form  of  stub-mortise  used  in  heavy  railroad- 
trestles.  The  timbers  are  secured  by  iron  straps  spiked  to  the 
sides. 

Fig.  8  is  a  form  of  joint  used  in  trusses,  the  broken  line  a 
showing  the  shape  of  the  tenon. 


STUB-MORTISE. 


95 


Ex.  13. 


Fig.  1 


x fr 


Fig.  4 


r.  5 


<b 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  8 


96  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 

Exercise   1 4.— Construction  of  a  Dovetail-Joint. 

Material. — Same  pieces  as  before,  with  stub-mortise  sawed  off. 
Work. — To  lay  out  and  construct  an  end-dovetail-joint. 

Wherever  oblique  cuts  are  to  be  made,  great  care  is  necessary  in 
marking. 

Place  the  pieces  in  the  position  shown  in  Fig.  1 ;  the  upper 
piece  is  to  have  the  tenon,  or  dovetail,  the  lower  the  mortise.  With 
try-square  and  sharp  pencil,  mark  lines  around  three  sides  of  each 
piece,  at  a  distance  from  the  end  equal  to  the  width  of  the  opposite 
piece,  as  shown  at  «,  #,  Fig.  1.  These  pencil-marks  should  be 
very  light,  so  as  to  be  easily  cleaned  off  with  sand-paper  or  smooth- 
ing-plane. 

The  measurements  of  the  dovetail  are  given  in  Fig.  3.  Set  the 
gauge  at  f",  and  mark  the  lines  #,  #,  Fig.  1.  Set  it  at  2f ",  and 
mark  the  lines  V,  V.  Set  it  at  J",  and  mark  the  line  c,  and  press 
the  point  only  of  the  gauge  at  d,  d.  Set  the  gauge  at  1-J",  and 
mark  the  line  c',  and  the  points  e,  e.  Bring  the  edge  of  the  blade 
of  the  try-square  to  coincide  with  the  lines  b  and  c  on  the  end  of 
the  mortise-piece,  and  mark  with  the  knife  a  line  joining  them. 
Do  the  same  for  all  the  oblique  lines,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

The  tenon  (#,  Fig.  2)  is  sawed  out,  and  the  sides  of  the  mortise 
b  also  cut  with  the  saw.  The  mortise  is  finished  with  the  chisel, 
used  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  A  vertical  cut  is  made  as  at  «,  using  the 
mallet,  then  one  at  b  ;  these  to  be  repeated  until  one  half  through 
the  piece,  then  cut  on  the  opposite  side.  Avoid  cutting  into  the 
sides  of  the  mortise  by  inclining  the  chisel.  The  same  caution 
must  be  observed  in  keeping  some  of  the  wood  at  c,  Fig.  4,  until  the 
last,  when  it  is  carefully  cut  away,  and  the  surface  tested  with  the 
try-square.  The  sides  of  the  mortise  usually  need  a  little  paring 
before  the  tenon  will  fit.  This  done,  the  pieces  should  go  together 
easily,  but  without  play  or  open  joints,  and  appear  as  in  Fig.  5. 

Fig.  6  shows  an  oblique  dovetail- joint  used  in  a  gallows-brace, 
which  is  made  of  lighter  material  than  the  rest  of  the  frame,  let  in 
about  one  half  its  thickness  and  pinned  as  shown  in  the  figure.  In 
practice  the  oblique  marks  on  the  brace  are  obtained  directly  from 
the  beams,  the  dovetails  are  then  cut,  and  the  mortises  marked  on 
the  beams  from  them. 


DOVETAIL-JOINT.  97 


Ex.  14. 


Fig.  ^ 


98  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 

Exercise   1 5.— Construction  of  a  Miter-Joint. 

Material.— A.  strip  of  pine,  2\"  wide,  V  thick,  and  about  16"  long. 
Work. — To  make  a  miter-joint. 

Mark  with  the  try-square  and  knife  two  lines  across  the  middle 
of  the  strip  from  a  and  e,  Fig.  1,  about  -J"  apart.  Measure  care- 
fully the  length  a  I,  and  lay  it  off  on  the  face-edge,  to  obtain  a  c, 
then  mark  with  the  knife  and  blade  of  the  try-square,  c  b.  Do  the 
same  on  the  opposite  side  for  the  mark  /  d.  From  c  and  d  mark 
lines  on  the  J"  side. square  with  the  face-edge. 

Saw  very  accurately  against  the  lines  c  b  and  d  /,  the  waste 
wood  being  toward  a  in  each  case.  The  pieces  put  together  as  in 
Fig.  2,  and  the  try-square,  indicated  at  a,  applied  to  them,  should 
show  a  true  miter-joint. 

The  joint  may  not  be  true,  and,  to  determine  which  side  is  at 
fault,  adjust  the  T-bevel  to  exactly  45°,  the  value  of  a  true  miter. 
To  do  this,  repeat  the  operation  shown  in  Fig.  1,  but  more  care- 
fully. With  a  sharp  pencil  mark  on  a  board  with  a  straight-edge 
the  line  a  c,  Fig,  3,  against  the  try-square ;  turn  the  square  over, 
and  test  the  line  by  marking  another  on  it ;  if  these  separate,  make 
a  line  exactly  between  the  two — this  should  be  correct ;  then  meas- 
ure off  accurate  equal  lengths  a  c  and  a  b ;  join  the  points  c  and 
b ;  adjust  the  T-bevel  to  this  last  line,  as  in  the  figure,  and  test  the 
pieces  with  it. 

Two  faults  are  shown  in  Figs.  4  and  5,  and  the  broken  lines 
indicate  the  wood  to  be  removed  in  order  to  correct  them,  which 
may  be  done  with  the  chisel,  saw,  or  plane. 

To  correct  with  the  saw,  fasten  the  true  side  with  the  hand- 
screw,  as  shown  at  «,  Fig.  6,  square  to  the  stop  of  the  bench-hook, 
press  the  piece  b  against  the  stop  and  the  piece  a ;  saw  between  the 
pieces,  so  as  to  cut  on  b,  while  a  guides  the  saw. 

To  correct  with  the  plane  the  piece  is  held  as  shown  in  Fig.  7, 
the  iron  cutting  that  part  which  is  to  be  removed.  This  maintains 
a  square  end  as  well  as  correcting  the  bevel. 

If  a  thick  piece,  fasten  in  the  vise,  and  with  a  sharp  fine-set 
smoothing-plane,  make  very  short  strokes,  as  indicated  by  the  ar- 
rows at  «,  #,  and  c,  Fig.  8,  cutting  only  those  places  where  wood 
should  be  removed. 


MITER-JOINT. 


99 


Ex.  15. 


Fig.  2          a 


Fig.  4- 


bf 


c  ae 


a 
Fig.  1 


Fig.  5 


Q 


Fig.  8 


100  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 

Exercise   16.— Use  of  the  Miter-Box. 

Material. — A  piece  of  molding,  18"  long-  and  2"  wide. 
Work. — To  saw  the  molding  in  the  miter-box  and  test  the  result  by 
uniting  the  pieces. 

The  successive  cuts  of  the  molding  are  shown  in  Fig.  4,  start- 
ing from  the  right-hand  end.  Adjust  each  cut  carefully,  so  that 
no  portion  of  the  edges  remains  between  the  cuts.  In  pushing 
the  saw,  which  in  ordinary  practice  is  a  back-saw  or  small  thin 
cross-cut,  guide  it  so  as  not  to  injure  the  saw-kerfs  of  the  miter- 
box,  and  use  very  little  force.  The  molding  cut  as  directed  gives 
two  sets  of  four  pieces.  Each  set  may  be  fastened  to  a  thin  board 
4"  square,  with  small  finishing  nails,  as  in  Fig.  5. 

In  molding  a  frame  or  panel,  the  lengths  are  accurately  meas- 
ured, usually  by  laying  the  molding  on  the  side  of  the  frame,  and 
marking  on  its  edge  with  a  knife.  The  inside  measurement  of  the 
frame  (a  Z>,  Fig.  6)  gives  marks  as  at  b  and  d,  Fig.  3,  which  are  ad- 
justed to  the  saw-kerfs  on  the  side  d.  Fig.  1,  of  the  miter-box.  The 
outside  measurement  (c  d,  Fig.  6)  gives  marks  as  at  a  and  c,  Fig.  3, 
and  these  are  adjusted  to  the  kerfs  on  the  bottom  piece  of  the  box, 
as  at  /,  Fig.  1.  But  in  the  lower  moldings,  shown  in  Fig.  6,  the 
marks  are  made  in  the  rabbets,  and  a  little  care  must  be  taken  to 
adjust  them  to  the  kerfs  on  the  bottom  of  the  miter-box. 

Very  large  moldings  are  built  up  of  several  elements  fastened 
to  frames,,  as  in  Fig.  7.  Fig.  8  shows  a  joint  commonly  used  in 
trimming  windows  and  doors,  in  which  only  the  molded  part  is 
mitered.  This  miter  is  cut  with  the  chisel  alone,  or  with  the  aid 
of  a  guide,  as  shown  at  #,  Fig.  9. 

A  miter-box  for  ordinary  work  should  be  about  18"  long,  and 
made  of  hard  wood,  4"  wide  and  1£"  thick.  The  middle  or  bot- 
tom piece  («,  Fig.  1)  must  be  planed  perfectly  flat  and  with  par- 
allel and  square  edges ;  the  sides  (#,  £,  Fig.  1)  firmly  fastened 
with  screws.  The  holes  for  these  screws  should  be  bored  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2;  the  first  boring,  #,  should  admit  the  smooth  shaft  of 
the  screw  a  •  the  second  boring,  £,  should  be  smaller  and  the  full 
length  of  the  screw ;  the  top  of  the  hole,  d,  is  countersunk  for  the 
head  of  the  screw.  The  saw-cuts  are  laid  out  from  the  face-edge 
(d,  Fig.  1),  and  made  with  the  saw  which  is  to  be  used  in  the  box. 


MITER-BOX. 


101 


Ex.  16. 

I     b   '}\ 


abed 


V. 


Fig.  1 


Fig. 


f 


/\/\/\/\/\ 

Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  7 


Fig.  8 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig.  9 


102  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise   1  7.— Construction  of  a  Stretcher- Joint. 

Material.—  Pine,  2"  wide,  f "  thick,  and  12"  long. 
Work. — To  make  a  joint  such  as  that  used  in  frames  for  stretching 
canvas. 

'  This  joint  is  a  combination  of  miter  and  half  joint,  and  is  laid 
out  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  The  miter  is  on  the  face-side,  and  i" 
thick,  the  tenon  also  J"  thick.  For  the  miter  the  gauge  is  set  at 
J",  but  for  the  tenon  at  -J".  To  avoid  mistakes,  the  parts  to  be  cut 
out  should  be  shaded  as  in  Fig.  2.  Saw  the  tenon  and  mortise 
with  a  back-saw  before  sawing  the  miter. 

With  an  £"  chisel,  or  better,  an  £"  float  (Fig.  5,  Plate  B),  cut  the 
grooves  for  wedges  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  groove  for  the  hori- 
zontal one  is  made  in  the  tenon-piece,  close  up  to  the  tenon,  and, 
for  the  vertical  one,  in  the  mortise.  Make  the  wedges  of  hard 
wood,  with  the  grain  parallel  to  one  side,  which  must  be  in  contact 
with  the  end  wood  of  the  pieces  as  they  are  driven  in. 

The  pine  piece  for  this  exercise  may  be  sawed  out  of  a  f"  board. 
This  board  should  rest  on  carpenter's  horses ;  the  rip-saw  is  used 
first,  the  kerf  is  made  on  the  pencil-mark,  is  brought  just  up  to  the 
cross-mark,  and  finished  with  a  vertical  stroke.  In  marking,  an 
allowance  of  about  -J"  should  be  made  for  planing  and  finishing. 

Fig.  5  shows  a  form  of  stretcher- joint  sometimes  seen  in  pict- 
ure-frames. This  joint  will  stretch  the  canvas  fairly  well,  but  has 
not  the  control  over  wrinkles  as  that  of  Fig.  4  has. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  form  of  miter- joint  in  which  oblique  saw-kerfs 
are  made  for  the  insertion  of  thin  pieces  of  hard  wood.  The  joint 
has  somewhat  the  character  of  a  dovetail,  and  should  be  well 
glued. 

A  miter-joint  in  thin  pieces  is  usually  secured  by  a  veneer, 
glued  in  as  in  Fig.  7.  The  pieces  are  first  mitered,  then  fastened 
in  the  jaws  of  a  hand-screw  or  bench-vise,  and  the  saw-cut  made 
for  the  insertion  of  the  veneer. 

Picture-frames  are  generally  made  by  mitering,  gluing,  and  fast- 
ening with  small  finishing-nails  at  the  outer  corners.  Occasionally 
we  see  frames  with  joints  like  those  of  Fig.  3,  and  sometimes  with 
two  tenons  and  mortises  instead  of  one.  Since  glue  holds  better 
on  side- wood  than  on  end-wood,  the  latter  are  much  stronger. 


STRETCHER-JOINT. 


103 


Ex.  17. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


\ 
A 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 


104:  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise  18. -Uniting  with  Dowels. 

Material— Two  blocks  of  wood,  about  3"  wide,  2"  thick,  and  4"  to  5" 

long. 
Work.—  To  mark  for  the  positions  of  the  dowels,  and  join  the  pieces. 

Plane  the  surfaces  of  the  blocks  until  perfectly  flat,  test  them 
by  bringing  the  surfaces  in  contact,  and  note  whether  they  touch 
all  around.  The  dowel-joint  is  a  weak  one,  and,  unless  the  surfaces 
are  flat  and  brought  in  close  contact,  the  dowels  will  be  of  no  serv- 
ice in  holding  the  pieces  together. 

Select  positions  for  the  dowels  on  the  pieces  to  be  united,  so  that 
other  joints  or  cuts  will  not  interfere  with  them.  Fix  a  point  (#, 
Fig.  1)  on  each  piece,  at  corresponding  distances  from  the  edges, 
for  one  dowel.  With  this  first  point  for  a  center,  mark  the  arcs 
#,  b  with  the  compasses,  and  mark  on  them  corresponding  points 
for  the  second  dowel.  From  the  points  #,  a  describe  the  arcs  e,  c  ; 
and  from  #,  b  the  arcs  d,  d,  crossing  c,  c  to  give  the  places  for  the 
third  dowels.  With  a  f "  auger  or  dowel-bit  bore  a  hole  about  I" 
deep  at  each  point.  Saw  three  dowels  from  a  dowel-rod,  about  2" 
long,  and  slightly  chamfer  their  ends  with  the  chisel  or  rasp.  Drive 
them  into  one  piece.  Measure  the  depths  of  the  holes  in  the  other 
piece,  see  that  the  dowels  are  not  too  long,  and  then  force  the  pieces 
together. 

An  ordinary  way  of  getting  the  marks  for  the  dowels  is  to  place 
small  shot  in  position  on  one  piece  and  press  the  other  piece  on 
them. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  method  of  marking  with  try-square  and  gauge 
for  dowels  ;  Fig.  3,  the  dowels  in  position  and  the  pieces  ready  for 
gluing. 

When  dowel-rods  can  not  be  obtained,  the  dowels  may  be  made 
with  a  dowel-plate.  Fig.  4,  a,  is  a  dowel-plate,  of  iron  or  steel,  and 
having  a  number  of  holes  of  different  sizes  in  it,  through  which 
rough  pieces  of  wood,  #,  are  forced  with  the  hammer. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  diagonal  positions  of  dowels  in  uniting  thick 
pieces.  Fig.  6  illustrates  the  use  of  dowels  in  holding  the  parts  of  a 
core-box  in  position.  Fig.  7  illustrates  the  use  of  dowels  in  uniting 
the  parts  of  a  hand-rail ;  a  is  a  square  nut,  b  a  nut  (shown  enlarged 
at  c)  with  projections,  so  that  it  may  be  turned  with  a  punch. 


DOWEL-JOINT. 


105 


Ex.  18. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  5 


Fig. 


O  \0 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 


106  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 

Exercise  19.-GIuing0 

Material.— Two  blocks  of  wood. 

Glue  prepared  for  use. 
Work.—  To  face  the  blocks  and  unite  them  with  glue. 

To  prepare  glue  :  Fill  the  inner  vessel  of  the  glue-pot  about  one 
third  full  of  dried  glue ;  cover  with  cold  water  and  set  aside  for 
several  hours ;  after  which  keep  the  outer  vessel  about  one  half  full 
of  water,  and  boil  with  the  inner  vessel  in  place.  Add  enough  hot 
water  to  the  melted  glue  until  the  drip  from  the  brush  begins  to 
form  drops. 

Plane  the  surfaces  of  the  blocks  perfectly  fiat.  Test  them  by 
holding  together  as  in  Fig.  1,  and  note  if  the  surfaces  come  together 
at  the  edges,  and  particularly  at  opposite  corners,  as  a  and  c.  Mark 
the  edges  of  the  block,  so  that  you  will  know  which  way  they  go 
together.  The  surfaces  may  be  roughened  with  the  scratch-plane, 
and  must  not  be  oily.  Adjust  the  hand-screws  a  little  wider  apart 
than  the  thickness  of  the  united  blocks. 

Heat  the  blocks  and  apply  the  hot  glue  to  both  surfaces,  then 
rub  them  together,  forcing  out  the  excess  of  glue.  Rest  the  lower 
jaw  of  the  hand-screw  on  the  bench,  and  place  the  blocks  well  into 
the  screws,  as  shown  in  Fig.  2 ;  tighten  the  screw  a  until  a  slight 
pressure  is  exerted  on  c,  c,  Fig.  2 ;  then  turn  the  screw  b  until  the 
jaws  close  down  at  d,  d,  Fig.  3.  Examine  carefully  to  see  that  the 
joint  is  evenly  closed,  adjusting  the  pieces  with  the  hammer,  if  not 
in  place.  Remove  the  excess  of  glue  with  a  wet  sponge,  or  with 
the  chisel  when  partially  set,  after  which  stand  the  pieces  aside  for 
several  hours. 

In  gluing  together  the  edges  of  boards,  or  the  parts  of  a  door, 
clamps  must  be  used,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

Fig.  5  represents  a  block  built  up  by  uniting  several  pieces ;  the 
pieces  #,  #  may  be  doweled  as  well  as  glued,  the  pieces  a,  a  simply 
glued.  Where  glue  alone  is  used,  some  attention  should  be  paid 
to  the  direction  and  character  of  the  grain.  If  possible,  the  grain 
should  be  parallel  and  alike  in  size.  A  coarse  grain,  «,  will  not 
unite  well  with  a  fine  grain,  5,  Fig.  6,  especially  if  the  pieces  are 
not  perfectly  seasoned.  Fig.  7  illustrates  a  way  in  which  large 
pieces  are  built  up  in  pattern- work. 


GLUING. 


107 


Jix.  19. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  6 


Fig.  7 


108  SIMPLE  JOINTS. 


Exercise  2O.— Examples  of  Glued  Joints. 

Fig.  1  shows  the  usual  way  in  which  furniture  is  joined — that 
is,  with  dowels  and  glue.  While  there  are  many  joints  in  furni- 
ture and  cabinet-work  for  which  the  dowel  is  especially  suited, 
there  are  also  many  joints  in  which  it  is  constantly  used,  but  not 
at  all  suited,  and  where  a  well-made  mortised  joint  would  be  much 
stronger. 

Fig.  2  shows  a  blind-mortise-joint  used  in  well-made  cabi- 
net work.  The  tenon  of  such  a  joint  should  have  shoulders 
on  at  least  three  sides.  Glue  the  mortise  and  tenon,  and  not  the 
shoulder. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  manner  of  stiffening  a  joint,  by  means  of 
angle-pieces  (a,  a).  These  are  carefully  fitted,  glued,  and  rubbed 
until  the  glue  sets. 

As  another  example  of  angle-pieces  we  have  that  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  in  which  the  pieces  #,  «,  #,  stiffen  the  joint  by  acting  like 
braces  between  the  boards.  This  practice  is  very  extensive  in  the 
manufacture  of  furniture,  and  is  also  used  between  the  tread  and 
riser  of  a  stair.  Where  greater  strength  is  required,  and  the  ex- 
posed surfaces  of  the  work  are  to  be  kept  as  free  as  possible  from 
marks,  as  in  fastening  a  table-top  to  its  frame,  the  pieces  may  be 
screwed  together  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  recesses  are  first  cut 
with  a  gouge  or  one  of  the  recent  forms  of  bits  shown  in  Fig.  6  ; 
then  the  holes  are  made  for  the  screws,  which  are  usually  short 
and  thick.  This  new  form  of  bit  is  guided  by  a  sharp  rim,  #, 
which  prepares  the  way  for  the  cutter,  £>,  and  may  be  started  against 
the  side  of  a  board  for  an  oblique  cut,  as  in  Fig.  5,  as  well  as  a 
straight  boring. 

It  frequently  happens  that  where  boards  have  to  be  securely 
united,  screws  must  be  used  through  a  surface  which  is  afterward 
to  be  finished.  Fig.  7  shows  the  boards  prepared  for  the  screws ; 
the  space  a  is  cut  very  neatly,  and  afterward  filled  with  a  round 
piece  of  wood  corresponding  in  coldr  and  direction  of  grain.  Fig. 
8  shows  the  pieces  screwed  together,  and  the  round  block,  #,  glued 
in  place,  after  which  the  surface  is  planed.  The  round  piece  may 
be  pared  with  the  chisel,  or  turned  in  a  lathe. 


GLUING. 


109 


fix.  20. 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  8 


Fig.  6 


110  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 

Exercise  21.— Laying  out  a  Dovetailed  Box. 

Material. — Dressed  pine-board,  14"  wide  and  £"  thick. 
Work.—  1.  Saw  off  17"  of  the  board. 

2.  Lay  out  the  parts  of  the  box  on  the  board. 

3.  Saw  and  plane  the  pieces  to  proper  size. 

The  dimensions  of  the  box  are :  length  8",  height  4J",  width  5", 
thickness  of  material  f ",  depth  of  inside  3i",  as  in  Fig.  1. 

It  will  take  17"  in  length  of  a  board  14"  wide  to  furnish  enough 
material.  Saw  tin's  from  the  board,  resting  on  horses,  after  mark- 
ing with  the  large  pencil  and  steel  square,  and  allowing  for  wind- 
checks,  if  at  the  end. 

The  17"  piece  must  now  be  carefully  examined  on  both  sides 
for  checks,  shakes,  knots,  sap-wood,  resin-pockets,  and  other  im- 
perfections, and  the  box  laid  out  so  that  these  faults  may  come  in 
the  waste  wood.  If  the  wood  is  clear,  the  pieces  may  be  laid  out 
as  shown  in  Fig.  2 :  «,  the  top ;  #,  bottom ;  c,  c,  front  and  back ; 
d,  dy  ends  ;  e,  e,  waste  wood  to  make  up  for  any  defects  that  may 
occur.  Notice  that  all  the  pieces  are  laid  out  larger  than  the  true 
size.  Thus  the  top  and  bottom  are  8£"  by  5£",  the  front  and  back 
8J"  by  3i",  and  the  ends  5£"  by  3J".  This  is  allowed  for  working 
margins. 

If  a  9"  board  is  used,  the  pieces  may  be  obtained  with  less 
waste,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3.  It  would  take  22J"  length  to  provide 
the  material. 

In  sawing  out  the  pieces  where  they  are  short,  as  in  this  case, 
those  of  the  same  kind  should  be  kept  together  until  after  planing ; 
a  with  #,  c  with  c,  and  d  with  d,  Fig.  2.  The  pieces  are  first 
squared  on  one  edge,  which  becomes  the  face-edge ;  from  this  the 
opposite  edge  is  gauged  and  planed. 

The  top  and  bottom  may  be  put  aside  without  planing  until 
the  other  pieces  are  glued  together. 

Plane  to  3£"  wide,  carefully  measure  and  mark  with  the  knife 
the  length,  8",  of  the  front  and  back  pieces,  and  saw  accurately 
with  the  back-saw. 

It  is  sometimes  the  practice,  after  sawing  the  pieces  apart,  to 
adjust  the  cut  ends  and  face-edges  together,  and  make  one  knife- 
mark  across  the  edges,  thus  securing  equal  lengths. 


DOVETAILED  BOX. 


Ill 


Ex.  21. 

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112  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 

Exercise  22.— Laying  out  and  cutting  the  Dovetails. 

Material. — Front  and  back  pieces  of  the  dovetailed  box. 
Work. — Marking  and  cutting  the  mortises. 

The  pieces  are  marked  with  a  sharp  pencil  on  both  sides  and 
edge  f-"  from  the  ends,  as  at  a,  a,  I,  I,  Fig.  1.  Or  the  pieces  are 
brought  together  and  points  marked  on  both  at  the  face-edge,  by 
which  the  lines  #,  #,  Fig.  1,  are  squared.  It  is  very  necessary  to 
square  the  lines  from  the  face-edge,  otherwise  the  joints  are  likely 
to  be  open  on  one  side  or  the  other. 

On  these  lines  mark  the  places  for  the  dovetails  as  indicated  in 
Fig.  2.  This  may  be  done  in  either  of  two  ways :  the  measure  may 
be  carefully  made  on  a  cardboard  and  transferred  from  it  to  each 
of  the  lines  with  a  sharp  point ;  or  the  marking-gauge  may  be  set 
at  each  measure  and  its  point  used  to  mark  the  distance  on  the 
lines. 

In  Fig.  2,  one  end  is  shown  full  size  with  the  measures ;  on  the 
line  from  a  to  b  each  space  has  its  value ;  while  from  c  to  d  each 
point  is  measured  from  the  face-edge,  and  any  inaccuracy  given 
to  one  of  the  points  is  not  continued  along  the  line.  This  latter 
method  is  truer,  but  more  difficult.  Having  marked  the  points, 
the  slanting  sides  of  the  joints  are  marked  with  the  knife  along 
the  T-bevel  set  to  a  certain  angle.  This  angle,  an  arbitrary  one, 
is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  On  a  board  with  a  true  edge  measure  f ",  #,  c\ 
from  1)  draw  the  line  a  b  with  try-square ;  lay  oif  on  this  line  a 
point  3"  from  #;  join  this  last  point  and  c\  adjust  the  T-bevel  to 
this  line,  a  c.  The  bevel  is  applied  to  the  ends  of  the  pieces  in 
marking  the  lines  g,  */,  and  i,  t,  and  the  marks  across  the  ends 
/£,  h,  completed  with  the  try-square  and  knife. 

In  cutting  out  the  mortises,  it  would  be  well  to  shade  the  parts 
to  be  removed,  then  saw,  observing  the  rule  in  regard  to  the  saw- 
kerf,  as  in  Fig.  4.  The  pieces  are  cut  out  as  directed  in  Exercise 
14.  In  finishing  the  cuts,  use  a  small  chisel  grasped  by  the  right 
hand  resting  on  the  piece  (Fig.  5),  so  that  the  hand  acts  both  as  a 
power  and  a  guide  or  check  to  prevent  the  tool  cutting  beyond 
half  the  depth.  The  cut  should  be  as  near  as  possible  straight 
across,  but  rather  hollow  than  round,  as  at  d.  Fig.  6.  In  testing 
use  a  small  steel  square  (Fig.  8,  Plate  A). 


DOVETAILED  BOX— MORTISES. 


113 


EX.  22. 


Fig.  1 


114:  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 


Exercise  23.— Marking  and  cutting  the  Tenons. 

Material. — The  end  pieces  of  the  dovetailed  box. 
Work. — 1.  Marking  and  cutting  the  tenons. 
2.  Gluing  together  the  sides. 

Mark  with  a  sharp  pencil  f "  from  the  ends  all  around  the  end 
pieces.  Stand  the  front,  back,  and  end  pieces  on  the  bench  in  the 
positions  which  they  will  have  when  the  box  is  completed.  Mark 
the  outer  and  upper  corners  of  adjoining  parts  with  the  same  sign 
or  number. 

Fasten  the  end  piece  numbered  1  in  the  vise,  with  its  number 
up  and  out ;  place  the  front  piece  on  the  end  piece  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  resting  the  back  part  on  a  plane-stock  or  block  of  wood. 
Adjust  the  two  pieces  with  the  try-square,  its  handle  against  the 
face- edge  of  the  front  piece,  and  its  blade  up  against  the  end 
piece.  Hold  the  upper  piece  in  this  adjusted  position,  while  with 
a  knife  or  point  you  mark  along  the  sides  of  the  mortise  on  the 
top  of  the  end  piece.  The  marks  should  appear  like  those  of  #, 
Fig.  2.  Mark  the  other  ends  in  the  same  way.  With  try-square 
and  knife  mark  from  the  ends  of  the  lines  «,  Fig.  2,  down  to  the 
pencil-mark,  as  at  b  and  c. 

Saw  with  the  back-saw  as  shown  in  Fig.  3,  keeping  the  kerf  in 
the  waste  wood. 

Saw  the  corner  waste  pieces,  and  chisel  out  the  middle  ones, 
making  the  surfaces  #,  #,  Fig.  4,  as  flat  as  possible.  Carefully 
fit  the  corresponding  parts,  using  the  chisel  for  paring  where 
neccessary. 

With  a  sharp  finely  set  smoothing-plane  clean  off  the  inside 
surfaces  of  the  pieces.  Open  two  hand-screws  ready  for  use  in  the 
positions  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

The  pieces  are  now  warmed,  the  tenons  and  mortices  glued,  the 
parts  pressed  together  and  placed  in  the  hand-screws,  which  are 
tightened  sufficiently  to  close  the  joints  but  not  bend  in  the  sides. 
The  gluing  process  should  be  performed  quickly,  and  the  student 
should  have  a  fellow-student  assist  him. 

Clean  off  as  much  excess  glue  as  possible,  wiping  the  inside 
with  a  wet  sponge  or  cloth,  and  set  aside  the  box  for  several 
hours. 


DOVETAILED  BOX— TENONS. 


115 


Ex.  23. 


Fig.  1 


A/iA 


\    c  \ 


Fig. 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  4 


tl 


Fig.  5 


116  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 


Exercise  24.— Finishing  the  Box. 

Work. — 1.  Examine  and  prepare  the  smoothing-plane  f or  finishing, 

2.  Smooth  and  plane  flat  the  bottom  edge  of  the  sides,  and  glue  on 

the  bottom  piece. 

3.  Smooth  the  joints  and  sides. 

Eemove  and  sharpen  the  iron  of  the  smoothing-plane.  Ex- 
amine the  sole  of  the  plane  with  the  try-square  for  flatness.  The 
fault  in  wooden  planes,  particularly  if  new,  is  shown  in  Fig.  1 ; 
holding  the  blade  on  the  sole,  you  will  notice  that  the  wood  just 
behind  the  throat  is  too*  high,  as  at  IT  This  is  caused  by  unequal 
shrinkage  of  the  wood  when  the  iron  and  wedge  are  in  place,  and 
must  be  remedied  by  planing  down  the  sole  with  a  true,  sharp,  fine- 
set  fore-plane  or  smoothing-plane.  Unless  the  sole  of  the  plane 
is  perfectly  flat,  no  good  work  can  be  performed  with  it. 

Eig.  2  represents  a  block-plane,  made  of  iron,  with  levers  for 
adjusting  its  iron,  and  a  movable  toe-piece  to  regulate  the  opening 
of  the  throat.  The  iron,  c,  has  its  bevel  side  up,  and  is  inclined 
about  20°.  There  is  more  friction  with  an  iron  plane,  but  it  gives 
better  results  across  the  grain  or  on  hard  wood. 

Fasten  the  box  in  the  vise  with  the  bottom  upward ;  hold  the 
plane  in  the  position  shown  in  #,  Fig.  3 ;  push  it  slowly  along  the 
side,  to  cut  rather  on  the  inside  than  outside  of  the  pieces ;  turn 
the  corners  as  shown  by  the  arrow  at  e,  Fig.  3.  The  tendency  is 
to  cut  too  much  on  the  outer  edge  and  on  the  corners,  which  must 
be  carefully  avoided.  In  all  finishing  the  shavings  must  be  very 
thin.  After  planing  and  testing  the  bottom  for  flatness,  smooth  the 
face  of  the  bottom  piece,  glue  it  to  the  box,  clean  off  the  excess 
glue,  and  set  aside  for  the  glue  to  harden ;  after  which,  fasten  the 
box  in  the  vise  with  an  end  upward,  and  clean  off  the  wood.  Here 
the  greatest  care  must  be  taken  to  prevent  splitting  off  pieces  in 
the  manner  shown  in  Fig.  4.  In  Fig.  5  the  broken  line  shows  the 
direction  which  the  cutting  edge  should  take,  always  raising  the 
plane  when  nearly  across.  Plane  from  the  edges  toward  the  mid- 
dle, and,  if  the  middle  becomes  high,  confine  the  strokes  to  the 
high  part. 

In  framed  work,  as  in  Fig.  6,  plane  a  and  b  first,  then  c  and  d. 
noting  the  direction  of  the  grain,  so  as  to  secure  a  smooth  surface. 


DOVETAILED  BOX— FINISHING. 


117 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  4 


Fig.  6 


118  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 


Exercise  25.— Hinging  the  Top  to  the  Box. 

Material. — V  middle-size  wrought-brass  butts,  f"  brass  screws  to  fit. 
Work. — 1.  Prepare  the  upper  edge  of  the  box  for  the  top. 

2.  Smooth  the  top  piece  and  square  its  back  edge. 

3.  Fit  and  fasten  the  hinges. 

4.  Finish  the  edges  of  the  top  piece. 

The  hinges  may  have  either  of  the  three  positions  shown  in 
Figs.  1,  2,  and  3.  For  that  of  Fig.  3,  narrow-size  butts  should  be 
used,  and  the  edges  of  the  back  piece  and  top  chamfered,  as  at 
a  and  b. 

Hold  the  hinge  on  the  back  piece  f "  from  the  corner,  and  mark 
with  the  knife  (#,  #,  Fig.  4).  Eepeat  for  the  other  hinge  at  the 
other  end.  Set  the  gauge,  using  the  hinge  for  the  distance  (c,  Fig. 
1),  and  mark  the  lines  (£,  Fig.  4).  Set  the  gauge,  exactly  one  half 
the  thickness  of  the  hinge  (rf,  Fig.  1),  and  mark  the  lines  (c,  Fig. 
4).  Hold  the  hinge  so  that  it  coincides  with  the  marks  #,  «,  and 
b,  Fig.  4,  and  extend  the  lines  &,  &,  up  to  b  with  the  knife. 

Cut  down  on  the  line  d,  Fig.  5,  with  the  knife  about  the  depth 
required ;  with  the  chisel  cut  out  the  corners,  as  shown  at  $,  $, 
Fig.  5 ;  and  with  the  chisel  in  the  position  c,  Fig.  5,  make  several 
cuts  to  finish  the  recess  for  the  hinge.  Place  the  hinge  in  the  re- 
cess ;  with  a  brad-awl  make  holes  smaller  and  not  as  deep  as  the 
length  of  the  screw,  and  fasten  the  hinge  with  the  screws.  Eepeat 
the  cutting  and  fasten  the  other  hinge.  Close  the  butts,  and  place 
the  top  in  position,  resting  on  them ;  mark  with  the  knife  points 
on  the  top  to  correspond  with  the  marks  «,  «,  Fig.  4.  From  these 
marks  as  guides  repeat  the  marking  and  cutting  as  for  the  back 
piece. 

Screw  the  butts  to  the  top,  using  one  screw  for  each ;  then  test 
the  top  by  closing  it,  and  remedy  any  defect  by  cutting  or  placing 
strips  of  cardboard  under  the  butts,  if  cut  away  too  much.  Then 
put  in  the  other  screws.  Finish  the  edges  of  the  top  piece,  using 
the  box  as  a  guide.  Smooth  the  face  of  the  top. 

The  top  may  be  secured  with  a  brass  hook  and  eye.  Screw  the 
eye  in  the  middle  of  the  front  edge  of  the  top ;  place  the  hook  in 
the  eye  to  determine  the  place  for  the  screw. 

Fig.  6  shows  a  table-hinge,  and  Fig.  7  a  door-hinge. 


DOVETAILED  BOX— HINGING   TOP. 


119 


Ex.  25. 


Fig.  4 


120  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 


Exercise  26.— Construction  of  a  Drawer. 

Material. — One  piece  of  ash,  to  work  4"  wide,  £•"  thick,  and  9^"  long. 

Two  pieces  of  maple,  to  work  4"  wide,  f  thick,  and  14f  "  long. 

One  piece  of  maple,  to  work  3f  "  wide,  V  thick,  and  8£"  long. 

One  piece  of  whitewood,  to  work  14"  wide,  \"  thick,  and  8f  "  long. 
Work.— 1.  Plane  the  pieces  to  the  proper  dimensions. 

2.  Cut  the  dovetails  on  the  front  piece. 

3.  Cut  the  mortises  and  grooves  for  the  back  piece  in  the  sides. 

4.  Plow  the  grooves  in  the  front  and  sides  for  the  bottom. 

5.  Fit  the  back  piece. 

6.  Glue  and  nail  the  front  sides  and  back  together. 

7.  Fit  and  place  the  bottom  in  position. 

The  pieces  may  be  cut  from  boards,  allowance  being  made 
for  working,  so  as  to  produce  a  drawer  of  the  dimensions  given  in 
Fig.  1. 

In  marking  for  the  dovetails  in  the  ash  front,  use  the  measures 
given  in  0,  Fig.  2.  In  cutting  out  the  dovetails,  use  the  back-saw, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  Chisel  out  the  waste  wood,  being  careful  not 
to  undercut  the  spaces,  which  should  be  frequently  tested  for 
squareness. 

The  mortises  (shown  at  c  and  d,  Fig.  2)  are  marked  from  the 
tenons.  The  grooves  for  the  back  are  sawed  and  chiseled  out  -J" 
deep,  £"  wide,  and  about  f"  from  the  ends. 

Place  the  i"  iron  in  the  plow  («,  Fig.  3),  adjust  it  for  a  fine  cut; 
set  the  bridge  ft  so  that  the  iron  is  •§•"  from  it ;  set  the  stop  c  so 
that  the  iron  will  plow  to  a  depth  of  y ;  and  firjt  try  the  plow  on 
some  waste  block  before  grooving  the  pieces. 

The  dovetail-joints  are  glued.  The  back  piece  is  nailed  with 
1J"  finishing  or  wire  nails,  which  should  be  driven  a  short  way  be- 
low the  surface  with  a  nail-punch. 

After  the  glue  has  hardened,  the  bottom  is  fitted  and  pushed  in 
place.  The  edge  of  the  bottom  is  marked  with  the  gauge  set  at  a 
little  less  than  J",  and  beveled  with  the  jack-plane  to  about  1"  back 
from  the  edge. 

The  entire  drawer  is  now  finished  with  the  smoothing-plane, 
and  may  be  furnished  with  handle  or  lock.  A  lock  is  fitted 
somewhat  like  a  hinge,  the  key-hole  being  the  guide  for  its 
position. 


D It  A  WER. 


121 


Ex.  26. 


Fig.  1 


122  COMPOUND  JOINTS. 


Exercise  27.— Construction  of   a  Blind-Dovetailed  Box. 

Material. — \"  dressed  mahogany. 

Work.—  To  construct  a  box  9"  long,  6"  wide,  and  about  4"  high,  with 
hidden  joints. 

The  box  will  consist  of  two  portions,  the  lower  or  box  proper, 
and  a  !£"  lid.  To  secure  perfect  coincidence  between  lid  and  box, 
these  are  built  together,  and,  after  the  box  has  been  glued  up,  are 
separated  with  the  saw.  An  allowance  from  £"  to  -f^"  must  there- 
fore be  made  for  the  saw-cut  and  finishing.  The  joints  between 
the  sides  are  dovetailed  with  a  mitered  edge.  The  top  is  grooved 
and  mitered  to  the  sides,  and  the  bottom  tongued,  to  fit  a  groove 
in  the  sides. 

Fig.  1,  #,  shows  the  details,  drawn  one  half  size  of  the  end 
piece,  c  a  perspective  of  the  same,  1)  a  perspective  of  the  adjoining 
piece.  At  d,  d,  d,  is  shown  the  separation  to  form  the  lid. 

Fig.  2  gives  the  full-size  details  of  the  joint  for  the  top  and 
also  for  the  sides  of  the  lid.  The  groove  and  miter  are  worked 
with  the  plow  and  plane  all  around  the  top. 

Fig  3  gives  the  details,  also  full  size,  for  the  bottom. 

The  dovetails  are  f "  long,  and  the  mitered  edge  £".  At  the 
top,  bottom,  and  adjoining  the  line  of  separation  (d,  Fig.  1)  of  the 
sides,  the  joints  are  mitered,  as  shown  in  b  and  c,  Fig.  1. 

In  working  the  joints,  cut  all  the  grooves  and  rabbets  first, 
then  the  dovetails,  and  lastly  the  mitered  surfaces.  On  the  ends 
of  the  sides,  saw  and  chisel  a  rabbet  -J"  wide  and  f"  deep ;  mark 
out  the  dovetails ;  saw  both  tenons  and  mortises,  as  shown  in  Fig. 
4,  Example  26  ;  chisel  out  and  fit  the  dovetails  and  miters. 

To  make  the  joint  between  the  lid  and  box  dust-tight,  strips 
•J"  thick  and  f "  wide  may  be  glued  around  the  inside  of  the  box, 
projecting  above  its  edge  about  T\",  and  with  mitered  joints.  The 
projecting  edge  should  be  round. 

Or  a  tray  about  1^"  deep  may  be  made  of  thin  material,  to  rest 
on  an  inside  lining  about  f$"  thick  and  !£"  high. 

In  Fig.  4  the  mitered  edge,  is  shown  rounded,  as  frequently  seen 
in  cabinet-work.  Fig.  5  is  a  simpler  joint  than  the  above.  Some- 
times the  corners  are  left  open  to  be  afterward  filled  with  a  narrow 
strip  of  some  fancy  wood. 


BLIND-DOVETAILED  BOX. 


123 


Ex.  27. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


Fig.  5 


Fig. 


Fig.  3 


124  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  28.— Framing. 

In  the  eight  exercises  following,  the  actual  sizes  will  be  given, 
from  which  the  student  will  calculate  the  proportionate  measures 
for  his  models. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  portion  of  the  frame  of  a  wooden  house. 
The  sills,  a,  are  3"  by  6",  with  half -joints  at  the  corners,  and  scarf 
or  lap-joints  between.  The  sills  should  be  2"  inside  of  the  founda- 
tion-walls (see  Fig.  1,  Exercise  30).  The  corner-posts,  #,  are  4"  by 
4",  and  extend  all  the  way  to  the  roof.  The  roof-plates,  d,  are  also 
4"  by  4",  with  half-joints  at  the  corners,  or,  if  the  building  has  a 
gable-end,  the  joint  may  be  like  that  in  Fig.  2,  Exercise  10. 
At  c  the  corner-post  is  notched  for  the  strip  supporting  the  joists 
of  the  second  story.  This  strip  is  I"  by  5".  The  studs,  e,  are  3" 
by  4",  13'  long,  and  set  16"  from  centers ;  they  are  spliced  as  shown 
in  Fig.  2,  b}7  nailing  strips  on  the  wide  sides.  The  floor-joists,  /*, 
should  be  3"  by  10"  for  the  principal  floor,  set  against  the  studs,  to 
which  they  are  securely  nailed.  At  g  is  the  opening  for  the  chim- 
ney ;  this  opening  is  formed  by  mortising  the  trimmer,  i,  into  the 
joists,  /£,  7i,  3'  from  the  studs ;  into  this  trimmer  are  mortised  the 
joists,  j.  The  form  of  mortising  this  case  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  3, 
or  the  stronger  joint  formed  by  an  iron  strap,  as  in  Fig.  4.  To 
avoid  waste,  the  openings  for  the  windows  may  be  calculated  from 
the  size  of  the  glass ;  for  a  sash  three  lights  wide  and  six  high,  each 
8"  by  10",  the  width  will  be  2'  11",  and  the  height  6'.  The  studs 
for  such  openings  are  framed  as  at  I  and  Ic.  If  a  small  building, 
the  roof-joists  may  be  3"  by  6",  butting  against  the  ridge-pole,  m. 
If  the  upper  story  is  an  attic,  its  ceiling  will  be  hung,  supported, 
as  at  n,  by  light  material.  The  floor-joists  are  stiffened  by  bridg- 
ing, which  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  Two  chalk-lines,  as  far  apart  as 
the  joists  are  wide,  are  made  across  the  tops  of  the  joists  where 
the  bridging  is  to  go,  and  from  these  lines  the  exact  length  and  in- 
clination of  the  saw-cut  are  obtained.  Fig.  7  shows  the  manner  of 
fastening  beams  or  joists  to  brick  walls,  by  using  an  anchor.  Fig. 
8  shows  the  manner  of  indicating  the  place  for  the  foundation ; 
the  lines  are  fastened  to  nails  driven  into  stakes.  To  square  the 
lines  with  the  tape-measure,  lay  off  8'  on  one,  and  stick  a  pin 
through  it  at  that  point ;  on  the  other  lay  off  6',  and  stick  in  a  pin  ; 
the  pins  should  be  exactly  10'  apart  to  make  the  angle  square. 


itJNIVERSITT) 
FRAMING.  125 


E.X.  28. 


Fig.  1 


126  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 


Exercise  29.— Construction  of  Window  and  Door 
Frames. 

Material. — The  following  pieces  enter  into  a  window-frame  the  size 
of  that  mentioned  in  the  previous  Exercise : 

Two  pulley-stiles,      a,  Figs.  1,  2,  and  3,  li"  thick,  5"  wide,  6'  I"  long. 

One  head,                   b,  Figs.  2  and  4,       li"  "  5"  "  2'  5f "  " 

One  sill,                      c,  Figs.  1,  2,  and  4,  li"  "  5£"  "  2'  5f "  " 

One  sub-sill,                d,  Figs.  1, 2,  and  4,  2"  "  6i"  "  3'  4"  " 

Two  casings,              e,  Figs.  1  and  2,         i"  "  If"  "  5'  6"  " 

One  casmgr,                /,  Figs.  1  and  2,         1"  u  If"  "  2f  1"  " 

Two  parting-strips,  g,  Figs.  1  and  2,         £"  "  $"  "  5' 6"  " 

One  parting-strip,    h,  Fig.  2,                     $"  "  |"  "  2'  5f "  " 

Two  hanging-stiles,  i,  Fig.  1,                   li"  "  4£"  "  5'  7"  " 

One  top,                     j,  Fig.  1,                   li"  "  4£"  "  3'  2"  " 

The  pulley-stiles  are  grooved  1^"  from  the  face-edge  to  receive 
the  parting-strips,  and  at  the  top  and  bottom  for  the  head  and  sills. 
The  pulleys  are  let  in  with  the  chisel  (d,  Fig.  3) ;  the  pocket 
formed  by  two  oblique  saw  -  cuts,  the  bottom  beveled  with  the 
chisel  and  secured  by  two  small  nails,  and  the  top  screwed  (e,  Fig. 
3).  The  head  #,  sill  c,  and  a  portion  of  the  sub-sill  (d,  Fig.  4),  are 
of  the  same  length,  the  sills  beveled  before  nailing  in  place.  The 
sub-sill  should  be  grooved  on  the  under  side,  to  receive  the  siding, 
and  prevent  draughts  under  the  window  (d,  Fig.  2). 

The  top  parting-strip  is  the  full  length  of  the  groove,  the  side 
parting-strips  butting  against  it  to  hold  it  in  place ;  usually  none 
of  these  strips  are  nailed,  the  paint  serving  to  secure  them.  If  the 
hanging-stiles  are  chamfered,  beaded,  or  molded,  the  joint  with  the 
top  must  be  like  that  of  Fig.  8,  Exercise  16. 

Door-frames  are  much  simpler  in  construction.  The  diagrams, 
Figs.  5  and  6,  give  the  necessary  parts  for  an  outside  door  7'  high 
and  2'  10"  wide.  The  jambs,  a,  are  rabbeted  and  grooved  to  receive 
the  head.  The  sill  is  nailed  to  the  ends  of  the  jambs.  Frames 
for  inside  doors  are  made  of  three  pieces,  the  jambs  and  head. 

Window  and  door-frames  are  built  at  the  same  time  or  before 
the  frame  is  put  up,  and  are  placed  in  position  before  the  siding  is 
nailed  on. 

The  diagrams  in  this  Exercise  are  drawn  to  a  scale  of  £/f 
tol'. 


WINDOW  AND  DOOR  FRAMES.  127 


Ex.  29. 


n  eg 


Fig.  3 


hi- 


Fie   1 


d 


Fig. 


d\ 


Fig.  2 


U 


128  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  SO.— Inclosing  a  Building. 

A  building  is  inclosed  by  sheathing,  placing  window  and  door 
frames  in  position,  putting  on  building  paper,  siding  and  shingling. 

If  a  frame  is  braced  by  oblique  studs  at  the  corners  and  possi- 
bly in  the  middle,  the  sheathing-boards  are  nailed  on  horizontally ; 
but,  if  not  braced  by  studs,  it  should  be  temporarily  secured  by 
oblique  boards  nailed  on  the  inside  of  the  studs,  and  the  sheathing 
put  on  at  about  an  angle  of  45°.  In  Fig.  1,  a  represents  the  foun- 
dation, b  the  sill,  c,  c  the  studs,  e«  e  the  sheathing,  which  passes 
down  over  the  sills,  and  is  firmly  nailed  throughout. 

Sheathing  is  usually  composed  of  rough  hemlock  boards,  10" 
wide,  I"  thick,  and  13'  long. 

The  water-table,  #,  Fig.  1,  is  specially  molded  to  cover  the 
joint  between  the  foundation  and  sills,  and  mitered  at  the  corners. 
Next,  the  window  and  door  frames  are  fastened  in  position,  with 
the  hanging-stiles  against  the  sheathing,  and  the  corner-boards,  i, 
carefully  nailed  in  place.  These  boards  are  usually  1^"  thick,  one 
2"  wide  and  the  other  3^"  wide,  and  beaded,  chamfered,  or  molded 
on  the  outer  edge.  The  building  paper  is  fastened  to  the  sheath- 
ing with  tacks,  a  little  in  advance  of  the  siding  (/,  Fig.  1). 

The  siding  is  now  put  on,  beginning  at  the  bottom  (A,  /£,  Fig. 
1).  The  joints  between  the  boards  are  marked  with  try-square  and 
pencil,  and  sawed  very  carefully  to  keep  out  wind  and  rain;  the 
joints  should  always  come  opposite  a  stud  for  secure  nailing.  Two 
nails  are  driven  at  each  stud,  one  in  the  middle  of  the  board  and 
the  other  just  above  the  lap,  as  shown  at/.  Other  forms  of  siding 
are  shown  at  k  and  /,  but  are  not  as  good  as  that  at  h. 

Fig.  2  shows  the  preparation  for  shingles  and  the  manner  ot 
putting  them  on.  The  first  three  layers  (c,  d,  e)  are  put  on  over- 
lapping, as  shown  at  b ;  then,  6"  from  the  edge,  a  chalk-line  is 
marked  on  the  layer,  e,  and  the  next  row,  /,  nailed  with  this  line  as 
a  guide.  The  projecting  part  of  the  roof  is  finished  with  dressed 
boards,  of  which  the  one  covering  the  ends  of  the  rafters  (#,  Fig. 
2)  is  put  on  last  and  should  project  about  £"  below  that  covering 
the  under  sides. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  form  of  gutter  used  on  overhanging  roofs,  like 
that  of  Fig.  2.  Fig.  4  shows  the  form  of  the  usual  tin-lined  gutter. 

In  all  work  that  is  to  be  painted,  the  nails  must  be  punched. 


INCLOSING   THE  BUILDING. 


129 


Ex.  30. 


Fig.  1 


130  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  31.— Laying  Floors.     Trimming. 

Starting  at  one  side,  the  floor-boards  are  laid  with  the  tongued 
edge  out  (#,  Fig.  1).  Joints,  #,  marked  with  try-square  and  pen- 
cil, must  come  over  a  joist,  and  be  as  far  removed  from  other 
joints  as  possible.  Each  board  must  be  hammered  up  tight 
against  the  one  behind  it,  using  for  this  purpose  a  portion  of 
a  board  with  the  groove,  as  shown  at  c.  The  nails  are  driven 
obliquely,  near  the  face  of  the  board  on  the  tongued  side,  as 
shown  at  d,  and  with  the  drawn  blow  described  in  Exercise  4. 
If  a  joist  is  too  low,  a  small  chip  must  be  placed  between  it  and 
the  floor-board  before  nailing;  or  if  too  high,  it  should  be  cut 
down  with  an  adz.  When  the  floor  is  complete,  a  smoothing- 
plane  should  be  passed  over  those  places  where  the  boards  are  not 
flush. 

Partitions  are  built  by  laying  on  the  floor  a  stud,  as  at  e,  Fig.  1, 
and  holding  a  corresponding  one  against  the  joists  above ;  between 
these  place  the  studs,  16"  from  centers,  using  braces  wherever  pos- 
sible. Studs  are  usually  doubled  at  the  doorways. 

In  trimming,  the  wood- work  must  be  fitted  to  irregular  plastered 
walls  or  floors  by  scribing,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  The 
base-board,  a,  is  placed  on  blocks  or  nails  a  short  distance  above 
the  floor,  and  the  compasses,  c,  run  along  near  its  edge,  so  as  to 
mark  on  it  a  line,  d,  corresponding  to  the  uneven  floor  indicated 
by  the  broken  line,  #,  1).  The  board  is  now  sawed  with  a  rip-saw, 
using  the  line  d  as  a  guide.  By  carefully  adjusting  the  ends  of  the 
board  to  be  scribed,  the  opposite  edge  may  be  brought  flush  with 
other  portions  of  the  trim. 

Fig.  3  gives  an  example  of  a  window-trim,  with  the  shape 
indicated  by  shaded  spaces.  The  base  is  returned  at  a.  The 
inside  sill,  d,  laps  over  the  sill  of  the  frame ;  c  is  the  stop-bead 
which  completes  the  groove  in  the  frame  for  the  lower  sash; 
and  the  outer  member  of  the  molding,  #,  is  scribed  to  the  plastered 
wall. 

Fig.  4  is  an  example  of  a  simple  wooden  mantel.  The  bottom, 
ft,  is  scribed  to  the  floor,  and  the  shelf,  #,  to  the  wall. 

Fig.  5  gives  a  form  of  base.  The  board,  a,  is  scribed  to  the  floor, 
the  molding,  #,  nailed  to  the  studs,  and  the  molding,  c,  nailed  to  the 
floor,  thereby  preventing  draughts. 


LAYING  FLOORS.     TRIMMING. 


131 


Ex.  31. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  3 


Fig.  5 


132  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  32.— Construction  of  a  Sash. 

While  in  former  times  the  smaller  size  and  greater  cost  of  glass 
led  to  uniformity  in  the  construction  of  the  sash,  at  present  there 
are  few  designers  who  think  at  all  of  adapting  the  window  to  the 
size  of  the  glass ;  but,  reversing  that  practice,  design  the  window, 
and  then  cut  the  glass  to  fit. 

The  regular  sizes  for  small  panes  are  6"  X  8",  7"  X  9",  8"  X  10", 
9"  X  11",  and  10"  X  12",  from  which  the  sash  and  window-frame 
are  easily  computed,  if  the  dimensions  are  laid  off  on  rods.  Fig.  1, 
#,  shows  one  side  of  a  rod,  upon  which  is  laid  out  the  width  of  a 
sash  to  hold  three  8"  by  10"  lights,  and  at  b  is  shown  the  side  of 
the  rod  on  which  is  measured  the  height  of  the  sash. 

In  Fig.  2  parts  of  the  rod  are  enlarged  to  show  the  details  of 
the  marking,  the  letters  corresponding  with  those  of  Fig.  1 ;  c 
shows  the  top-rail,  2"  wide,  with  a  1£"  tenon.  From  the  rabbet, 
which  is  T3g-,"  for  the  glass  in  the  top-rail,  to  that  of  the  first  bar,  is 
10Ty.  The  bar  is  i"  wide.  At  e  is  shown  the  meeting-rail,  1£", 
and  at  /  the  bottom-rail  From  such  a  rod,  carefully  laid  out, 
many  sashes  and  frames  may  be  marked  out. 

The  rails  and  stiles  are  1J"  thick,  and  molded  with  a  sash- 
plane ;  in  the  absence  of  which  a  flat  chamfer  will  serve  just  as 
well. 

The  meeting-rails  are  made  in  one  piece,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3  :  a 
is  the  upper  stile  with  its  mortise,  b  the  lower  stile,  c  the  meeting- 
rail  of  the  upper  sash,  and  is  not  molded,  but  simply  rabbeted  for 
the  glass;  ^, the  meeting-rail  for  the  lower  sash,is  molded,  and  not 
rabbeted ;  there  is  a  groove  about  -J"  wide  and  T3^-"  deep  for  receiv- 
ing the  glass ;  the  rails  are  sawed  apart,  as  shown  at  e.  When  the 
sashes  are  put  in  the  building,  the  bevels  are  planed  and  fitted 
tightly,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4. 

The  vertical  bars  are  mortised  through  the  rails,  and  have  small 
mortises,  y  square,  for  the  insertion  of  the  horizontal  bars,  which 
are  made  the  full  width  of  the  sash,  but  sawed  into  separate  pieces 
just  before  putting  together,  as  shown  in  Fig.  6. 

Excepting  those  of  the  short  bars,  all  of  the  joints  are  glued, 
the  mortises  wedged,  and  the  dovetails  pinned. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  groove  and  socket  for  the  sash-cord;  a  is 
plowed,  and  b  bored  with  a  long  spoon-bit. 


SASH. 


133 


Ex.  32, 


Pig.  1 


1 


Fig.  2 


O 

Fig.  5 


134  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE- BUILDING. 

Exercise  33.— Construction  of  a  Door. 

Doors  are  either  batten  or  panel. 

Batten-doors  are  made  by  fastening  several  tongued  and  grooved 
boards  to  two  or  three  cross-pieces,  with  clinch-nails  or  screws.  If 
heavy,  the  doors  should  be  braced  with  diagonal  pieces  between  the 
cross-pieces. 

The  parts  of  a  panel-door  to  fit  the  frame  of  Fig.  5,  Example 
29,  are  shown  in  Fig.  1 :  a  is  the  top-rail,  I  the  lock-rail,  c  the  bot- 
tom-rail, d  the  stile,  e  the  muntin,  and  /  a  side  view  of  the  stile 
showing  the  mortises. 

The  joints  are  mortise  and  tenon,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
lines.  After  the  mortises  and  tenons  are  cut,  the  inner  edges  of 
the  pieces  are  grooved  to  receive  the  panels. 

Fig.  2  shows  an  enlarged  view  of  the  joint  of  the  top-rail  and 
stile :  a  is  the  tenon,  %"  thick,  ft  the  relish,  c  the  mortise,  e  the 
groove  for  the  panel,  and  d  the  groove  enlarged  with  a  chisel  to 
receive  the  relish.  This  may  be  taken  as  a  sample  for  all  of  the 
joints.  The  tenon  is  at  first  the  full  width  of  the  rail,  and  about 
i"  longer  than  the  width  of  the  stile. 

The  parts,  of  the  door,  after  the  panels  have  been  fitted,  are 
glued,  forced  together  by  clamps  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  4, 
Exercise  19,  and  wedged. 

The  panels  are  plain,  according  to  the  section  (Fig.  1),  or  raised, 
in  which  the  material  is  thick,  the  sides  cut  down  to  fit  the  grooves, 
and  the  middle  portion  molded  around  its  edge,  as  in  Fig.  3,  Ex- 
ercise 39  ;  or  a  plain  panel  molded,  as  in  Fig.  6,  Exercise  16. 

Fig.  3  shows  a  portion  of  the  frame  of  a  blind  or  shutter ;  it  is 
made  on  the  same  principle  as  a  door,  but  smaller ;  the  joints,  in- 
stead of  being  glued  and  wedged,  are  white-leaded  and  pinned, 
and  in  place  of  panels  may  have  laths,  the  ends  of  which  have  a 
projecting  pin  to  fit  into  holes  in  the  stiles  of  the  frame.  These 
holes  must  be  bored  to  the  same  depth,  and  the  distance  between 
the  ends  of  the  pins  of  the  lath  should  be  a  trifle  greater  than  that 
between  the  bottoms  of  the  holes  in  opposite  stiles,  or  the  laths 
will  drop  instead  of  retaining  any  position  given  them. 

The  rod  is  fastened  to  the  laths  with  staples,  one  set  of  which 
is  driven  into  the  rod,  and  the  other  into  the  middle  of  the  inner 
edge  of  the  laths. 


DOOR. 


135 


Ex.  33. 


fl 


Fig.  3 


X 


Fig.  1 


136  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  34.— Construction  of  Stairs. 

For  ordinary  stairs,  the  single  step  should  have  a  riser  (#,  Fig. 
1),  between  6i"  and  7£"  high,  and  a  tread,  I,  from  9"  to  11".  The 
distance  between  the  floors,  say  9'  8",  is  measured  in  the  build- 
ing, and  is  divided  to  obtain  a  riser  about  the  proper  height,  giving 
sixteen  risers,  7i"  high.  If  there  are  sixteen  treads,  and  the  space 
allowed  for  the  stairs  is  12',  then  it  will  require  9"  for  each. 

After  carefully  measuring  the  space  for  the  stairway,  the  height, 
width,  and  length,  the  work  is  laid  out,  cut,  and  partly  put  together 
in  the  workshop.  From  the  height  and  length  the  pitch,  or  angle, 
of  the  stairs  is  determined. 

The  details  for  the  step  are  shown  in  Fig.  1 :  the  riser,  «,  is  £" 
thick,  grooved  near  the  bottom  of  its  face,  and  the  outer  end  cut 
for  a  miter,  as  shown  at  d.  The  tread  is  If"  or  1 J"  thick,  tongued 
at  b  for  insertion  into  the  next  riser,  grooved  on  the  under  side 
near  the  front  for  its  own  riser,  its  front  edge  rounded,  mitered 
at  the  end,  and  two  dovetail  mortises,  c,  c,  to  receive  the  balusters 
cut  into  the  end,  as  shown  at  e.  The  tread  and  riser,  with  the 
quarter  hollow  molding,  are  glued  together :  sometimes  to  secure 
a  better  joint,  blocks  are  glued  in  the  angle  under  the  tread,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  4,  Exercise  20. 

Fig.  2  represents  the  wall-string,  #,  grooved  to  receive  the  steps, 
which  are  forced  against  the  front  edges,  with  wedges  glued  and 
driven  at  #,  #,  for  both  tread  and  riser.  The  bottom  riser  is  not 
wedged. 

Fig.  3  shows  the  face-string,  the  upright  edges  of  which  are 
mitered  as  at  b  ;  the  edge,  c,  is  square,  to  receive  the  treads,  which 
are  firmly  nailed  near  the  base  of  the  baluster.  The  face-string  is 
usually  stiffened  by  a  stud  or  joist,  as  at  e,  Fig.  3. 

A  plain  newel  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  section  at  a  shows  the 
structure  through  the  base  and  the  way  in  which  it  is  fastened  to 
the  riser,  #,  and  the  string,  c,  the  tread  being  cut  away  to  allow  it 
to  pass  down  to  the  floor. 

Fig.  5  shows  the  balusters ;  the  shorter,  «,  coincides  with  the 
face  of  the  riser,  the  longer,  #,  is  placed  with  its  face  one  half  way 
between  the  risers. 

After  the  balusters  are  in  position,  the  molding  is  completed 
on  the  face-string,  as  in  the  upper  part  of  Fig.  4. 


STAIRS. 


137 


Ex.  34. 


h 9- -i 


or  THE 


UNIVERSITY 


138  ELEMENTS  OF  HOUSE-BUILDING. 

Exercise  35.— Laying  out  and  shaping  the  Hand-rail. 

The  hand-rail  should  always  have  a  gradual  and  graceful  change 
from  one  direction  to  another.  In  Fig.  1,  a  b  represents  a  tread, 
b  d  a  riser,  and  a  d  the  pitch,  which  is  the  direction  of  the  hand- 
rail ;  c  a  point  on  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  around  which  the  stairs 
turn ;  a  e  a  quarter  of  an  ellipse,  and  represents  the  bending  of  the 
center  of  the  hand-rail  in  passing  from  the  inclined  to  the  hori- 
zontal position;  eg  a  quadrant,  through  which  the  center  of  the 
hand-rail  bends  before  becoming  straight  again. 

This  double  bending,  or  wreath,  is  made  in  two  pieces,  joined 
at  e.  We  will  take  for  illustration  the  elliptical  one.  In  Fig.  2, 
c  represents  the  axis  of  the  cylinder  at  the  landing,  d  the  face  of 
the  string,  e  the  line  of  the  balusters  and  center  of  the  hand-rail, 
a  c  the  tread,  a  b  the  riser,  c  b  the  pitch,  a  b  c  the  angle  used  in 
marking  the  work ;  c  g  and  g  i  are  semi- diameters  of  the  ellipse 
through  which  the  hand-rail  passes. 

With  the  lengths  eg  and^i,  of  Fig.  2,  construct  the  lines  a-  b 
and  b  c  of  Fig.  3  ;  with  i  h,  of  Fig.  2,  lay  off  a  f  and  a  li  in  Fig.  3  ; 
with  gf,  of  Fig.  2,  lay  off  ce  and  c  d  in  Fig.  3,  and  complete  the 
elliptical  form,  /  e  dh.  This  form,  the  mold,  is  cut  out  of  a  thin 
board,  and  used  in  laying  out  the  work. 

Fig.  4  represents  a  block  of  wood,  thicker  than  the  hand-rail, 
and  sawed  to  the  form  of  the  mold.  With  a  T-bevel  adjusted  to 
the  angle,  a  b  c,  of  Fig.  2,  and  applied  to  the  side,  d  0,  Fig.  3,  slide 
the  mold  along  the  line  a  #,  Fig.  3,  until  the  center  of  the  hand- 
rail in  this  inclined  position  comes  to  the  center  of  the  end  of  the 
wood,  as  shown  at  e  g,  Fig.  3.  A  rectangle,  inclosing  the  form  of 
the  rail,  is  now  drawn  on  the  end,  eg,  and  also  on  the  end  at/,  Fig. 
3.  The  corners  of  these  rectangles  are  now  united  by  curved  lines 
drawn  along  a  thin  straight-edge  pressed  to  the  hollow  and  round 
surfaces,  as  in  Fig.  4. 

The  block  is  then  cut  to  these  lines,  producing  a  shape  as  shown 
in  Fig.  5 — in  which  it  must  be  remembered  the  side  #,  and  also 
that  directly  opposite,  are  cylindrical  surfaces. 

The  elements  of  the  molding  are  now  marked  from  the  edges, 
and  worked  with  gouge,  spoke-shave,  and  planes  specially  shaped 
for  the  purpose.  In  practice  a  straight  portion  of  the  rail  is 
worked  on  the  same  block  with  the  wreath,  a  h  and  g  Ji\  Fig.  1. 


HAND-RAIL, 


139 


35. 


Fig.  5 


1 4:0  WO  OD-  WO  EKING. 

Exercise  36.— Use  of  the  Frame-Saw.    Bending  Wood. 

For  small  work,  a  narrow  saw,  with  fine  teeth,  as  at  a,  #,  Fig. 
1,  is  used ;  but  for  ordinary  carpenter's  scroll-work,  a  saw  like  that 
shown  at  c  and  d,  held  in  a  frame,  as  in  Fig  4,  Plate  B,  is  em- 
ployed. The  back  of  the  saw  is  beveled  to  turn  easily  when  cut- 
ting small  circles,  and  it  will  cut  better  if  drawn  very  tight. 

To  cut  out  a  circular  hole  in  a  board,  bore  first  with  a  center- 
bit  («,  Fig.  2),  close  up  to  the  line,  then  start  the  saw  from  this  hole, 
as  at  b.  In  cutting  narrow  angles  in  scroll-work,  the  saw  is  sent 
all  the  way  into  the  corner,  as  at  «,  Fig.  3,  then  backed  up  to  cut 
as  shown  at  Z>,  the  piece  c  is  taken  out,  the  saw  turned  and  the 
piece  cut,  as  at  d.  Scroll-work  is  finished  with  the  chisel,  spoke- 
shave,  or  rasp,  and  smoothed  with  sand-paper. 

There  are  many  ways  of  bending  wood,  but  the  best  is  to  steam 
and  bend  it  around  a  form,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  form,  «,  is 
fastened  to  a  plank  or  the  shop-floor,  the  piece,  #,  steamed  thor- 
oughly, bent  in  place,  and  held  until  dry  by  blocks  nailed  against 
it,  as  at  d ;  or,  if  several  pieces  are  to  receive  the  same  shape,  by 
pins  driven  into  holes,  as  at  c.  Boat-builders  use  planks  with  pins 
on  both  sides  of  the  steamed  stick  in  bending  the  ribs.  Pieces  to 
be  bent  with  steam  are  usually  worked  to  the  desired  shape  first, 
then  bent,  and  when  dry  are  finished  with  the  spoke-shave. 

In  bending  moldings,  if  steam  is  not  convenient,  they  may  be 
sawed,  as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  5  and  Fig.  6.  In  bending  the  face- 
string  of  stairs,  the  method  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  employed.  The 
string  has  a  series  of  grooves  cut  parallel  with  the  axis  of  the 
cylinder  around  which  the  string  is  to  bend ;  it  is  then  wet  with 
hot  water,  and  bent  over  a  cylinder,  or  saddle,  and  the  strips,  a, 
fitted  and  glued  in.  When  the  glue  has  set,  the  tops  of  the  strips 
may  be  planed  down,  and  a  piece  of  canvas  glued  over  the  bent 
portion.  Fig.  8  shows  another  method  of  arriving  at  the  same  re- 
sult, in  which  the  string  acts  as  a  sort  of  veneer  to  -the  pieces,  a. 
Where  a  bend  and  twist  are  to  be  given,  the  wood  may  be  made  up 
of  several  thin  pieces  glued  together,  as  in  Fig.  9. 

In  bending  wood,  compress  the  fibers  on  the  inside  of  the  curve, 
to  retain  its  strength. 

The  curve  of  the  form  (a,  Fig.  4)  should  tie  a  little  quicker,  to 
allow  for  a  slight  spring  back  of  the  wood  when  released. 


FRAME-SAW.    BENDING    WOOD. 


141 


Ex.  36. 


1 42  WO  OD-  WORKING. 

Exercise  37.— Construction  of  a  Pattern. 

Pattern  makers  receive  drawings  of  finished  iron- work ;  from 
these  drawings  they  must  lay  out  and  construct  the  wood-work  nec- 
essary to  obtain  molds  for  the  castings. 

Fig.  1  represents  a  cast-iron  pillow-block,  to  receive  an  inch- 
shaft  ;  Fig.  2,  the  plan  of  the  box  without  the  cap.  The  surfaces 
through,  from  a  to  #,  Fig.  1,  are  to  be  finished. 

Fig.  3  represents  the  pattern  for  the  cap ;  it  is  made  of  four 
pieces,  #,  J,  £,  d,  nailed  together. 

The  measures  taken  from  the  drawings,  or  specifications,  are 
increased  a  small  amount,  about  -J"  to  1',  to  allow  for  shrinkage  of 
the  iron. 

Those  surfaces  which  are  to  be  finished  should  be  about  Ty 
thicker  than  shown  in  the  drawings.  In  Fig.  3  the  wood  beyond 
the  broken  line,  e,  e,  shows  the  allowance  made  on  the  pattern  for 
finishing. 

The  smoothest  surface,  containing  the  least  number  of  blow- 
holes, on  a  casting,  is  the  one  which  was  down ;  therefore,  the  pat- 
tern must  be  built  with  that  in  view.  In  order  to  facilitate  draw- 
ing the  pattern  from  the  sand,  it  should  have  its  vertical  sides 
slightly  inclined  and  very  smooth. 

The  base,  Fig.  4,  is  made  of  the  several  pieces,  «,  Z>,  c,  d,  and  e,  to 
secure  smoother  surfaces  than  could  be  obtained  by  cutting  the 
pattern  from  a  solid  block.  The  lower  part  of  the  piece,  d,  may 
be  made  separately. 

The  holes  for  the  bolts  are  either  to  be  bored  in  the  metal  or 
cored.  In  the  latter  case,  a  core-print,  /,  is  fastened  in  the  proper 
place,  and  the  molder  inserts  in  the  mold  a  core  of  the  proper  size. 

The  box  is  to  have  hollows,  to  receive  Babbit  metal  linings; 
these  hollows  must  be  cored  out ;  c,  Fig.  3,  and  e,  Fig.  4,  are  the 
core-prints,  and  Fig.  6,  the  core-box  for  the  hollows,  which  are  in-% 
dicated  by  broken  lines  in  Figs.  3,  4,  and  5.  The  core-box  is 
made  of  five  pieces ;  the  block,  a,  with  the  thin  pieces,  #,  nailed  to 
its  ends ;  the  pieces,  c,  c,  held  in  position  by  dowels,  are  removed, 
to  free  the  core.  . 

The  pattern  has  its  nail-holes  filled  with  wax  or  putty,  and  is 
varnished  with  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol.  The  core-prints  are 
covered  with  shellac  varnish  in  which  lamp-black  has  been  mixed. 


PATTERN  FOR   CASTING. 


143 


Ex.37. 


Fig.  1 


o   o 


00 


Fig. 


d_ 

41., U 


Fig. 


Fig.  5 


Fig.  G 


144  WO  OD-  WORKING. 

Exercise  38.— Shaping  a  Boat-Model. 

Material.— A.  block  of  pine,  2"  high,  If"  wide,  and  9"  long. 
Work.—  To  chisel  out  a  half -model,  conforming  to  the  lines  given  in 
the  plans. 

The  design,  which  is  that  of  a  common  yawl,  is  divided  into 
spaces,  1"  apart,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  and  Fig.  %-,  ab  represents  the 
water-line,  and  c  d  an  arbitrary  vertical  section  through  the  model. 

Fig.  3  gives  the  full  size  and  form  of  the  model  for  each  inch. 
-The  numbers  correspond  with  those  of  Figs.  1  and  2. 

With  tracing-paper  transfer  these  curves  to  cardboard  or  thin 
veneers ;  cut  the  hollow  sides,  thus  forming  templates,  which  are 
to  be  used  in  testing  the  work  as  it  progresses. 

Mark  all  around  the  block  pencil-lines  1"  apart.  Lay  off  on 
these  lines  the  vertical  heights  of  each  of  the  spaces  on  the  front 
and  back  of  the  block,  and  through  the  points  thus  obtained  draw 
curves  representing  the  deck.  Chisel  down  the  top  to  these  lines, 
and  restore  the  inch  lines  on  the  deck  surface. 

Lay  off  on  the  inch  lines  of  the  deck  the  horizontal  widths  of 
each,  and,  drawing  a  curve  through  these,  obtain  the  outer  curve 
of  Fig.  2.  On  the  bottom  lay  off  the  widths  to  obtain  the  inner 
curve,  e,  Fig.  2.  Saw  the  inclinations  of  bow  and  stern,  and  mark 
on  the  stern  end  the  shape  of  that  part  from  its  template.  In 
order  to  hold  the  block  its  flat  side  may  be  fastened  with  screws  to 
another  block  and  the  curved  side  shaped  with  the  chisel  and 
gouge.  When  finished,  the  model  may  be  fastened  to  a  thin  hard- 
wood piece,  as  shown  in  Figs.  1  and  2,  making  it  more  ornament- 
al; or,  for  a  better  effect,  the -block  may  be  built  up  of  £"  pieces 
and  thin  dark  veneers,  all  glued  or  screwed  together. 

Besides  testing  with  the  templates,  the  fingers  should  be  passed 
lightly  over  the  side,  to  detect  high  and  irregular  places,  which 
must  be  pared  down. 

Finish  with  fine  sand-paper  held  in  the  fingers. 

In  practice  the  boat-builder  constructs  his  models  of  thin  pieces, 
usually  -J-"  thick,  dowelled  together,  so  that  they  may  be  easily 
taken  apart.  After  shaping  the  model  the  pieces  are  marked, 
separated,  and  the  measures  obtained  from  the  pieces  give  him  the 
details  with  which  he  makes  the  curves  on  the  block  (Fig.  4,  Exer- 
nise  36)  for  bending  the  ribs. 


BOA  T-MODEL.  '  145 


Ex.  38. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


10 


146  WOOD-WORKING. 

Exercise  39.— Veneering. 

Material. — Block  of  pine  large  enough  to  furnish  a  cube  of  3". 

Six  pieces  of  veneers,  preferably  of  different  woods  and  as  near 

the  same  thickness  as  possible. 
Work. — 1.  To  plane  the  cube. 

2.  Glue  veneers  on  opposite  surfaces. 

3.  Polish  the  veneers. 

One  of  the  most  effective  ways  of  finishing  wood  is  to  cover  it 
with  a  thin  layer  of  some  fancy  variety.  Sometimes  the  fancy 
wood  lacks  strength,  or  can  not  be  obtained  sufficiently  large,  or 
possibly  is  too  expensive  to  be  used  in  solid  form.  Then,  to  obtain 
its  effect,  a  common  wood  must  be  used  as  a  base  and  the  fancy 
wood  as  a  veneer. 

Veneers  are  of  varying  thickness,  from  -fa"  up  to  y.  Because 
of  the  greater  tendency  of  hard  wood  to  warp  and  shrink,  struct- 
ures like  doors  are  made  with  an  inside  of  pine  and  outer  coats  of 
veneers,  i"  or  more  in  thickness.  For  ordinary  cabinet-work,  ve- 
neers are  about  -fa"  thick. 

Thick  veneers,  as  a,  in  Fig.  1,  are  prepared  for  gluing,  as  di- 
rected in  Exercise  19.  The  surface  should  always  be  scratched, 
unless  the  wood  holds  glue  very  well. 

The  cube,  Fig.  2,  is  made  true  by  carefully  sawing  and  planing 
the  ends  first,  and  from  them  squaring  the  sides.  The  ends  and 
sides  must  be  perfectly  flat,  or  the  veneers  will  receive  no  support 
at  the  corners. 

The  ends  are  now  sized — that  is,  coated  with  very  thin  glue,  to 
cause  better  adhesion. 

The  veneers,  </,  Fig.  2,  are  cut  at  least  £"  larger  all  around  than 
the  size  of  the  block,  roughened  with  the  iron  of  the  scratch-plane, 
taken  out  of  the  plane,  and  held  in  the  hand ;  and  the  opposite 
side  marked  with  a  pencil  to  distinguish  the  surface. 

Next,  prepare  two  cauls  (A,  Fig.  2),  %"  larger  all  around  than  a 
face  of  the  cube,  about  1"  thick,  and  with  one  side  very  flat.  These 
are  kept  hot  when  ready  for  use. 

Cover  the  scratched  surface  of  two  veneers  and  the  ends  of  the 
cube  with  glue ;  place  the  veneers  on  the  ends,  the  hot  cauls  on  the 
veneers,  and  apply  the  hand-screws  with  great  care.  The  hot  cauls 
remelt  the  glue,  and  therefore  this  operation  need  not  be  hastened 


VENEERING. 


147 


Ex.39. 


Fig.  1 


Fig.  2 


f 


Fig.  3 


\ 


r.  5 


148  WOOD-WORKING. 

as  in  the  case  of  ordinary  gluing.  If  the  veneers  are  split  or  have 
small  holes  through  which  the  glue  may  ooze,  place  a  piece  of 
thick  paper  between  the  cauls  and  veneers  to  prevent  them  from 
adhering. 

When  thoroughly  dry,  the  veneers  are  trimmed,  and  the  next 
pair  glued  on. 

The  veneered  surfaces  are  now  planed  with  a  block-plane  or 
very  true  smoothing-plane,  observing  the  directions  in  Exercise  24, 
then  sand-papered,  coated  with  a  filling  varnish,  and  set  aside  to 
harden. 

If  it  is  desired  to  put  fancy  designs  in  veneers  on  the  cube, 
they  should  first  be  sawed,  and  if  straight,  edged  with  the  plane,  in 
the  position  shown  in  Fig.  7,  Exercise  15,  and  glued  to  a  piece  of 
strong  paper,  as  in  Fig.  4.  This  is  then  scratched  and  glued  on  in 
place  of  the  single  piece. 

The  raised  portion  of  panels  is  frequently  veneered,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  In  this  case  the  veneer  should  be  of  the  same  kind  of 
wood,  as  a  walnut-root  veneer  on  a  walnut  panel.  Strong  contrasts 
should  be  avoided. 

In  cabinet-work,  recesses  are  sometimes  cut  to  receive  veneers; 
these  may  be  cut  out  with  the  chisel,  or,  better,  with  a  router,  shown 
in  Fig.  5 ;  a  is  the  cutting-edge,  projecting  the  proper  depth  below 
the  smooth  surface  of  the  tool,  adjusted  and  fastened  by  the  pinch- 
screw,  1) ;  <?,  c,  are  projections  against  which  the  thumbs  are  applied 
in  pushing  the  tool. 

Wooden  routers  may  be  made  of  a  thick  piece  of  hard  wood, 
with  a  throat  for  the  insertion  of  a  chisel  and  wedge  to  secure  it. 

A  very  small  veneer  may  be  set  by  gluing  and  holding  a  hot 
iron  against  it  for  a  few  moments.  This  is  of  service  in  repairing 
broken  or  loose  veneers. 

Bags  of  hot  sand  are  sometimes  used  as  cauls  in  veneering  un- 
even surfaces. 

Polishing. 

Fasten  the  veneered  cube  in  the  vise,  using  cloth  between  the 
jaws  and  the  cube.  If  it  is  too  low,  a  hand-screw  may  be  fastened 
in  the  vise  and  the  cube  held  in  the  hand-screw.  The  work  will 
b3  hastened  if  the  pores  of  open-grained  woods  are  closed  with  a 
fillsr.  This  filler,  which  may  be  obtained  already  prepared,  or 


POLISHING.  H9 

made  by  mixing  chalk  or  plaster  with  turpentine  to  a  paste,  is 
rubbed  in  with  a  cotton  cloth,  and  the  cube  set  aside  for  a  few 
hours  to  become  nearly  dry,  when  the  excess  of  the  filler  is  removed 
with  a  sharp  steel  scraper,  and  the  surface  smoothed  with  fine 
sand-paper  moved  in  the  direction  of  the  grain. 

To  polish,  take  a  wad  of  cotton  as  large  as  a  walnut,  place  it 
within  a  clean  cotton  cloth  about  5"  square,  and  saturate  with 
shellac  varnish ;  twist  the  corners  of  the  cloth,  hold  in  the  fingers, 
and  pass  a  finger  moistened  with  a  drop  of  raw  linseed-oil  over  the 
surface  of  the  rubber.  Apply  the  rubber  with  small  circular  strokes 
until  the  entire  surface  has  been  gone  over,  and  the  grain  seems 
filled.  Turn  the  cube  and  go  over  the  same  process  with  each  of 
the  other  sides.  Set  the  cube  aside  for  a  day.  Repeat  the  process, 
scraping  and  sand-papering,  if  necessary,  and  again  rubbing  in  var- 
nish with  a  new  rubber  until  the  sunken  spots  are  filled.  If  the  rub- 
ber begins  to  stick,  it  must  be  slightly  oiled,  but  the  least  amount 
of  oil  used  the  better  for  the  polishing.  To  finish,  moisten  a  clean 
cloth  with  a  few  drops  of  alcohol,  and  rub  the  surface  briskly  for 
a  minute  or  two.  The  palm  of  the  hand  is  frequently  used  to  put 
the  finishing  touch  to  a  polished  surface ;  this  should  be  done  before 
the  varnish  becomes  hard. 

If  furniture  varnish  is  used,  the  wood  is  filled,  then  covered 
with  several  coats  of  varnish,  applied  with  a  flat  brush,  allowing 
each  coat  to  become  perfectly  hard,  and  smoothing  with  fine  sand- 
paper before  the  next  is  put  on  ;  the  surface  is  then  polished  with 
rotten-stone  and  petroleum,  and  rubbed  perfectly  dry  with  cloths 
or  cotton- waste. 

Painting. 

A  new  brush  should  stand  in  linseed-oil  ten  or  twelve  hours, 
after  which  it  is  reaciy  for  use.  When  finished  the  brush  should 
be  thoroughly  cleaned  with  turpentine,  and  put  aside  in  such  a 
way  that  the  bristles  are  not  bent,  but  lie  out  straight.  The  bristles 
may  be  wrapped  in  cloth  or  paper  to  prevent  them  from  spreading. 
In  the  absence  of  turpentine,  kerosene  or  soap  and  water  will  clean 
the  brush  nearly  as  well. 

To  prepare  work  for  painting,  the  nails  should  be  punched — 
that  is,  driven  about  -fa"  below  the  surface,  and  the  wood  sand- 
papered. In  sand-papering  a  soft  wood,  coarse  paper  is  bent 


150  WO  OD-  WORKING. 

around  a  block,  3"  by  5"  and  1"  thick,  with  a  layer  of  cork,  J" 
thick,  glued  to  its  face ;  the  wood  is  gone  over  with  oblique  and 
circular  strokes  to  cut  down  ridges  and  high  places,  then  a  few 
strokes  with  the  grain  to  remove  scratches.  Next,  with  a  fine  pa- 
per and  the  block  rub  only  in  the  direction  of  the  grain  until  very 
smooth.  Surfaces  to  be  varnished  or  polished  should  always  be 
sand-papered  with  the  grain.  Before  painting  pine-woods,  the 
knots  and  resin-pockets  must  be  covered  with  size,  or,  better,  with 
thick  shellac- varnish. 

The  first,  or  priming  coat,  is^a  mixture  of  white-lead,  raw  and 
boiled  linseed-oils  ;  or,  it  may  contain  red-lead  and  other  pigments 
and  turpentine ;  but,  in  any  case,  the  drying-oil  is  in  greater  and 
the  pigment  in  less  proportion  than  in  ordinary  paint.  To  obtain 
an  even  flow  of  paint  from  the  brush,  hold  it  nearly  perpendicular 
to  the  surface,  and  allow  the  ends  only  of  the  bristles  to  touch. 

When  the  priming  is  dry,  the  nail-holes,  cracks,  and  defects 
generally  are  puttied,  and  the  work  smoothed  with  sand-paper,  if 
small. 

The  work  is  then  painted  two  or  more  coats  with  the  regular 
mixture  of  white-lead,  oil,  and  turpentine,  lightly  sand-papering 
the  first  and  second,  if  very  smooth  work  is  desired.  The  strokes 
should  be  long,  even,  and  with  the  grain.  If  the  subject  is  a  door, 
paint  the  panels  first,  then  the  muntins,  next  the  rails,  and  lastly 
the  styles,  thus  making  the  brush-marks  correspond  to  the  grain  of 
the  wood. 

For  inside  work  the  paint  should  contain  about  one  half  as 
much  turpentine  as  oil,  which,  in  drying,  will  give  a  dull  surface ; 
but  for  outside  work  little  or  no  turpentine  should  be  used  to  se- 
cure a  good  and  lasting  surface,  and,  in  drying,  the  surface  retains 
its  luster. 


INDEX. 


Active  cells,  13,  15. 
Age  of  trees,  14,  20. 

of  wood,  27. 
Agaric,  43. 
Agaricus  mellcus,  43. 
Anchored  beam,  124. 
Angle  of  cutting  edge,  80,  82. 
Angle-piece,  108. 

right,  58. 

square,  58. 

Annual  ring,  13,  14,  17. 
Applewood,  35. 
Apron,  57. 
Ash,  19,  26,  34,  38. 
Attic  ceiling,  124. 
Auger-bit,  60,  92. 
Ax,  60. 

Babbit  metal,  142. 
Back-saw,  60. 
Baluster,  136. 
Bamboo,  32. 
Bar,  sash,  132. 
Bark,  13,  14,  15. 
Base,  130. 
Basswood,  36,  38. 
Bast,  13,  15,  16. 
Batten-door,  134. 
Bead,  88. 

double,  88. 
Bead-plane,  88. 
Beech,  33,  38. 


Beetle,  46. 

boring  through  metal,  49 

grub  of,  46. 

mouth  parts  of.  48. 

pupa  of,  46. 

stages  of,  46. 
Bench-ax,  60. 
Bench-dog,  58. 
Bench-hook,  58. 
Bench-knife,  58. 
Bench-screw,  58. 
Bench-stop,  58. 
Bench-vise,  58. 
Bending  moldings,  140. 

wood,  38,  140. 
Binding  of  saw,  76. 
Birch,  32,  38. 
Bird's-eye  maple,  25. 
Bit,  auger,  60,  92. 

center,  60,  90,  94. 

countersinking,  60. 

dowel,  104. 

reaming,  60. 

twist,  60. 
Black  ironwood,  19. 

spruce,  30,  38. 

walnut,  19,  33,  38. 
Blind,  window,  134. 
Blind-dovetailed  box,  122. 
Blind-mortise,  108. 
Blind-rod,  134. 
Block-plane,  116. 


152 


INDEX. 


Blow-holes,  142. 
Board,  22. 

sawing  a,  22,  110. 
Boat-model,  144. 
Bolted  joint,  94. 
Bordered  pits,  15,  16. 
Borers,  timber,  45. 
Boring  for  screws,  100. 

of  grub,  45. 
Boring  insects,  21,  45. 
Borings,  appearance  of,  45. 
Bottom- rail,  132,  134. 
Box,  142. 

dovetailed,  110. 
Boxwood,  3'<, 
Brace,  60. 

Branching  of  stems,  19. 
Breaking  of  wood,  26,  38. 
Bridging,  124. 
Building,  inclosing  a,  128. 
Building-paper,  128. 
Bundles,  fibrous,  13,  15,  32. 
Buprestid,  49. 
Buprestis  Vircfinica^  49. 
Burls,  51. 
Butternut,  34,  33. 
Buttonwood,  34,  38. 
Butts,  118. 

Cambium,  13,  14,  15,  18. 
Cap,  60,  72,  142. 
Care  of  tools,  56. 
Carpenter-bee,  50. 
Carpenter-moth,  51. 
Carpenter's  pencil,  58. 
Carpenter's  horse,  58. 
Carpentry,  40. 
Carving,  40. 
Casing,  126. 

Casting,  pattern  for,  30,  36,  142. 
Cauls,  146. 

hot  sand,  148. 
Cedar,  19,  31,  38,  53. 
Ceiling,  124. 
Cell,  contents  of,  18. 


Cell,  pitted,  14,  17. 

wood,  14,  15,  16,  17. 
Cellulose,  18. 
Cell-wall,  16,  18,  25, 
Center-bit,  60,  90,  94. 
Center-bit  stop,  94. 
Centimeter,  58. 
Chamfer,  66,  90. 
Charcoal,  18; 
Charring,  53, 
Checks,  wind,  23. 
Cherry,  wild,  35,  38. 
Chestnut,  19,  33,  38. 
Chimney,  framing  for,  124. 
Chisel,  60,  64,  80,  82. 

use  of,  64,  66. 
Clamp,  58,  106. 

iron,  58. 

Claw-hammer,  60. 
Clear  lumber,  22. 
Clinching  nails,  70. 
Clytus  speciosa,  49. 
Coal-tar,  53. 
Color  of  wood,  27. 
Compasses,  58. 
Compass-saw,  60. 
Composition  of  wood,  18. 
Compressibility  of  wood,  26. 
Contents  of  cell,  18. 
Coped  moldings,  68. 
Core,  142. 

Core-box,  68,  104,  142. 
Core-print,  142. 
Cork,  26. 

Corner-boards,  128. 
Corner  posts,  124. 
Countersink,  60. 
Creosote,  53. 
Cross-cut  saw,  78. 

filing,  84. 
Cross-grain,  20. 
Curled  maple,  35. 
Cut  nails,  70. 
Cutting  trees,  21. 
Cypress,  31,  38,  53. 


INDEX. 


153 


Dcedalia,  44. 

Dampness,  effect  of,  on  wood,  27,  52. 

Decay  of  trees,  20,  42. 

of  wood,  21,  29,  42,  54. 
Decimeter,  58 
Defects  in  milling,  29. 

in  wood,  28. 
Degrees,  measuring,  58. 
Dematium  giganteum,  44. 
Density  of  wood,  25. 
Discoloration  of  wood,  52. 
Door,  134. 
Door-frame,  126. 
Door-hinge,  118. 
Double  bead,  88. 
Double  plane-iron,  60. 
Dovetail-joint,  69,  96,  110,  112,  120,  122. 
Dowel-bit,  104. 
Dowel-joint,  104 
Dowel-plate,  104. 
Drawer,  120. 
Draw-knife,  60. 
Drawing,  8,  62. 
Dressed  lumber,  22. 
Dry  rot,  44. 

Drying  of  wood,  22,  26. 
Durability  of  wood,  27. 

Ebony,  37. 

Edge,  cutting,  80,  82. 
Elasticity  of  wood,  18,  23,  26. 
Elements  composing  wood,  18. 
Emery-wheel  for  sharpening,  82. 
Engraving  on  wood,  25,  35,  37. 
Epidermis,  15. 

Face  of  work,  64. 
Face  measure,  29. 
Face-edge,  64. 
Face-string,  136. 

bending,  140. 
Felling  timber,  21. 
Fibro- vascular  bundle,  13,  15,  32. 
File,  triangular,  84. 
Filing  saws,  84. 


Filler,  148. 
Filling  the  grain,  148. 
Fillister,  60. 
Finishing,  116,  142. 
Float,  60,  102. 
Floor,  laying  a,  130. 
Floor-joists,  124. 
Foot,  running,  29. 

square,  29. 
Fore-plane,  60. 
Foundation  of  building,  121. 
Frame,  door,  126. 

head  of,  126. 

molding  a,  100. 

window,  126. 
Frame-saw,  140. 
Framing,  124. 
Free  water  in  plant,  18. 
Fungus,  19,  41. 

growth  in  wood,  42,  44. 

nitrogen  in,  41. 

spores  of,  41. 

tear,  43,  44. 

water  in,  44. 
Furniture-joints,  108. 

varnish,  149. 

Gable,  124. 

Gauge  for  grinding,  82. 

marking,  58. 
Georgia  pine,  38. 
Glass,  132. 
Glue,  106. 

Glued  joints,  26,  106,  108. 
Glue-pot,  58,  106. 
Gluing,  106. 

a  box,  114. 

veneers,  146. 
Gouge,  60,  68,  80,  82. 
Grain,  24,  72. 

coarse,  25. 

cross,  24. 

curled,  25. 

even,  25. 

filling  the,  148. 


154: 


INDEX. 


Grain,  fine,  25. 

silver,  25. 

straight,  24. 
Grindstone,  82. 
Grooved  joints,  88. 
Growth  of  trees,  19. 

spring,  14,  16. 

summer,  14,  16. 
Grub,  beetle,  46. 
Gunstock,  34. 
Gutter,  128. 

Half-joint,  86. 

modified  forms  of,  88. 
Hammer,  57,  70. 
Hand-rail,  104,  138. 
Hand-screw,  58,  106. 
Hanging-stile,  126. 
Hardness,  18,  25,  38. 
Head  of  frame,  126. 
Heart- wood,  14,  18. 
Hemlock,  28,  30,  38. 
Hickory,  19,  26,  34,  38. 
Hinge,  118. 
Hollow-plane,  60. 
Hook  and  eye,  118. 
Hooked  teeth  of  saw,  76. 
Horn-bug,  50. 
Hung  ceiling,  124. 
Hymenomycctes,  43. 

Immersion  of  wood  in  water,  21,  27,  52. 

of  logs  in  water,  52. 
Inclosing  a  building,  128. 
Insects,  parasitic,  19,  45. 
Iron,  plane,  60. 

Jack-plane,  60,  72. 
Jambs  of  door,  126. 
Jaws  of  beetle,  47. 
Jersey  pine,  30. 
Joinery,  40. 
Joint,  blind-dovetail,  122. 

blind-mortise,  94. 

bolted,  94. 


Joint,  dovetail,  69. 

dowel,  104. 

glued,  106,  114. 

grooved,  88. 

half,  86,  88. 

keyed,  86. 

lap,  88. 

miter,  98,  102. 

mortise,  90. 

oblique-dovetail,  88. 

of  studs,  124. 

pinned,  92. 

rabbeted,  88. 

scarf,  86. 

screwed,  108, 

shoulder  of,  88. 

stretcher,  102. 

stub-mortise,  94. 

water-tight,  88. 

wedged,  86. 
Jointer,  60. 

Kerf,  76. 

Kiln-dried  wood,  22. 
Kinds  of  wood,  30. 
Knarls,  51. 
Knife,  bench,  58. 

marking  with,  78. 
Knots,  28. 

Ladder-form  vessels,  17. 
Lap-joint,  88. 
Larva,  46. 
Lath,  blind,  134. 
Laying  floors,  130. 
Laying  out  material,  110. 
Level,  spirit,  58. 
Lignin,  18. 
Lignum-vitae,  36,  38. 

sap-wood  of,  52. 
Lips  of  beetle,  47. 
Lock-rail,  134. 
Locust  35,  38,  53. 
Logs  immersed  in  water,  21,  27,  52. 

prepared  for  shipping,  52. 


INDEX. 


155 


Lucanus  dama,  50. 
Lumber,  22. 

clear,  22. 

dressed,  22. 

resawed,  22. 

measurement  for  selling,  29. 

Machinery,  wood-working,  39. 
Mahogany,  36,  38. 
Mallet,  60,  90. 
Mandibles,  47. 

muscles  of,  47. 
Mantel,  130. 
Maple,  bird's-eye,  35. 

curled,  35. 

sugar,  35,  38. 
Marking,  rod  for,  132. 

with  pencil,  66. 
Marking-gauge,  58,  74. 
Match-planes,  60. 
Measurement  of  lumber,  29 
Mechanic,  40. 

Medullary  rays,  14,  15,  16,  17. 
Meeting-rail,  132. 
Merulim  lacrymans,  43,  44. 
Metric  rule,  58. 
Millimeter,  58. 
Milling,  21,  29. 

defects  in,  29. 
Miter,  98. 

guide  for  cutting,  100. 
Miter-box,  58,  100. 
Miter-joint,  98,  102. 
Model  of  boat,  144. 
Modified  water,  1 8. 
Mold,  138. 
Molding,  68,  100. 

bending  a,  140. 

coped,  68. 

returned,  68. 
Morrell's  saw-set,  84. 
Mortise,  90. 

pinning  a,  92. 

stub,  94. 
Mortise -joint,  90. 


Mouth  parts  of  beetle,  48. 
Muntin,  134. 

Muscles  of  mandibles,  47. 
Mushroom,  41. 
Mycelium,  41. 

Nail,  clinch,  70. 

cut,  70. 

punching  a,  149. 
Nailing  floors,  130. 
Netted  vessels,  17. 
Newel,  136. 
Nitrogen  in  fungus,  41. 

Oak,  20,  21. 

group,  13,  15,  17,  32. 

red,  33,  38. 

white,  19,  26,  32,  38,  53. 
Oak-pruner,  46. 
Oblique  dovetail-joint,  96. 
Ogee,  66. 
Oil-can,  58. 
Oil-slip,  58,  80. 
Oil-stone,  58,  80. 
Oregon  pine,  19. 

Paint,  24,  27,  53. 

for  inside  work,  150. 

for  outside  work,  150. 
Paint-brush,  149. 
Painted  clytus,  49. 
Painting,  149. 

a  door,  150. 
Palm  for  walking-sticks,  26. 

group,  13,  14,  16,  20,  32. 
Palmetto,  19,  32. 
Palms,  32. 
Panel,  134. 

door,  134. 

raised,  134. 

veneered,  148. 
Paper,  building,  1 28. 

used  in  veneering,  148. 
Parallel  perspective,  62. 
Parasite,  wound,  43,  44. 


156 


INDEX. 


Parasitic  insects,  45. 

plants,  41. 
Paring,  64. 
Parting-strips,  126. 
Partitions,  130. 

Patterns  for  casting,  30,  36,  142. 
Pearwood,  35. 
Pencil,  58. 
Perspective,  62. 
Picture-frames,  102. 
Pillow-block,  142. 
Pine  group,  13,  15,  16,  30. 

Jersey,  30. 

white,  19,  27,  30,  38. 

yellow,  30,  38. 

weevil,  49. 

Pinning  a  mortise,  92, 
Pitch  of  stairs,  136. 
Pith,  13,  14,  15,  32. 
Pits,,  bordered,  15,  16. 
Pitted  vessels,  14,  17. 
Plane,  72,  74. 

block,  116. 

fore,  60. 

hollow,  60. 

jack,  60,  72. 

jointing,  60. 

match,  60. 

rabbet,  60. 

round,  60. 

sash,  60,  132. 

scratch,  60,  106,  146. 

smoothing,  60,74,  116. 
Plane  iron,  60,  72,  80,  82. 
Plane-stock,  60. 
Plank,  22. 
Plants,  parasitic,  41. 
Plow,  60,  120. 
Plumb-bob,  58. 
Pocket  in  window-frame,  126. 

resin,  28,  150. 
Polishing,  148. 
Polypore,  41,  43. 
Polyponts  annosm,  43. 

dryadeus,  44. 


Polyporus,  fulvus,  44. 

pini,  44. 

Hulphurus,  43. 
Porosity,  25. 

Preservation  of  wood,  52. 
Priming- coat,  150. 
Prionus  unicolor,  50. 
Properties  of  wood,  24. 
Pulley-stile,  126. 
Pupa,  46. 

Quirk,  68. 

Rabbet,  88. 
Rabbet-plane.  60. 
Rail,  bottom,  132,  134. 

lock,  134. 

meeting,  132. 

top,  132,  134. 
Raked  teeth  of  saw,  76. 
Rattan,  26,  32. 
Reamer,  60. 
Red  cedar,  19,  31,  38. 

oak,  33,  38. 

Redwood,  19,  31,  38,  53. 
Relish,  134. 

Resawing  lumber,  22,  23. 
Resin,  16,  25,  27. 

pockets,  28,  150. 
Return  molding,  08. 
Ridge-pole,  124. 
Right  angle,  58. 
Ringed  vessels,  17. 
Rip-saw,  76. 

filing,  84. 

use  of  the,  76,  102. 
Riser,  136. 
Rod  for  marking,  132. 

blind,  134. 
Roebuck  beetle,  50. 
Roof -plate,  124. 
Rosewood,  37. 
Rot  of  wood,  42. 
Round-plane,  60. 
Router,  148. 


INDEX. 


157 


Rubber,  polishing,  149. 
Rule,  metric,  68. 
two-foot,  58. 
Running  foot,  29. 
Rust  on  tools,  57. 

Saddle,  140. 
Sandpapering,  149. 
Sap-wood,  14,  27,  28. 
Sash,  132 
Sash-bar,  132. 
Sash-cord,  132. 
Sash-plane,  60,  132. 
Saw,  back,  60. 

binding  of,  76. 

compass,  60. 

cross-cut,  60. 

frame,  60. 

mill,  22. 

rip,  60. 

set  of,  76,  78,  84. 

tearing  action  of,  76,  78. 

teeth  of,  76,  78,  84. 

tenon,  60. 
Saw-beetle,  50. 
Saw-filing,  84. 
Sawing-boards,  22,  110. 
Scale,  three  quarters,  58. 
Scarf-joint,  86. 
Scratch-plane,  60,  106, 146. 
Screw-driver,  60. 
Scribing,  130. 
Scroll-work,  140. 
Season  for  cutting,  21. 
Seasoned  wood,  18,  22,  52. 
Sections  in  drawing,  62. 
Set  of  saw-teeth,  76,  78,  84. 
Shaky  wood,  23,  28. 
Sharpening  tools,  80,  82,  84. 
Sheathing,  128. 
Shellac  varnish,  142. 

in  painting,  150. 
Shingling,  128. 
Shot  used  in  marking,  104. 
Shoulder  of  joint,  88. 


Shrinkage  of  cast-iron,  142. 

of  wood,  23. 
Shutter,  134. 
Siding,  128. 
Sieve-tubes,  17. 
Sill,  124,  126. 
Size,  146. 

of  glass,  132. 

of  lumber,  22. 
Sketching,  8. 

Smoothing-plane,  60,  74,  116. 
Sole  of  plane,  60, 116. 
Spanish-bayonet,  L9. 
Spiral  vessels,  14,  17. 
Spirit  level,  58. 
Spoke-shave,  60. 
Spores,  fungus,  41. 

development  of,  41,  42. 
Spring-compasses?,  58. 
Spring  growth,  14,  16. 
Spruce,  30,  38. 
Square  angle,  58,  124. 

foot,  29. 
Stairs,  136. 

pitch  of,  136. 
Start,  72. 
Steel-square,  58. 
Stem  of  plants,  13,  19. 
Step,  186. 

Stiffness  of  wood,  26. 
Stile,  132,  134. 

hanging,  126 

pulley,  126. 
Stop  for  center-bit,  94. 
Stop-bead.  130. 
Strength  of  wood,  26. 
Stretcher-joint,  102. 
Strips,  parting,  126. 
Structure  of  wood,  13. 
Stub-mortise,  94. 
Studs,  124. 
Sub-sill,  126. 
Sugar-maple,  35,  38. 
Summer  growth,  14,  16. 
Sycamore,  34,  38. 


158 


INDEX. 


Table  of  woods,  38. 

Table-hinge,  118. 

T-bevel,  58,  98. 

Tear  fungus,  43,  44. 

Tearing  action  of  saws,  76,  78. 

Teeth  of  saws,  76,  78,  84. 

Template,  144. 

Tenon,  90,  114. 

Testing  seasoned  wood,  23. 

Thin  membranes,  16,  17. 

Through  mortise-joint,  90. 

Timber,  20,  22. 

Timber-borers,  45. 

Toadstool,  42. 

Tools,  40,  58,  60. 

sharpening,  80,  82,  84. 
Top  of  window-frame,  126. 
Top-rail,  132,  134. 
Toughness  of  wood,  26. 
Tread,  136. 
Trees,  growth  of,  19. 
Triangular  file,  84. 
Trimmer  joist,  124. 
Trimming,  130. 
Try-square,  58,  64. 
Tulip-tree,  37,  38. 
Turnery,  40. 
Turpentine,  16. 
Twist-bit,  60. 

Value  of  wood,  24,  27,  29. 
Varnish,  furniture,  149. 

shellac,  142,  150. 
Veneer,  25,  146. 
Veneering,  146. 
Vessels,  17. 

Wall-string,  136. 


Wany  edge,  29. 
Warped  board,  planing,  72. 
Warping  of  wood,  23. 
Water  in  wood,  18,  23. 

in  fungus,  44. 
Water-table,  128. 
Water-tight  joint,  88. 
Weather-beaten,  52. 

stain,  52. 
Wedge,  60. 
Weevil,  49,  52. 
Weight  of  wood,  25,  38. 
White  cedar,  31,  38. 

pine,  19,  27,  30,  38. 

oak,  19,  26,  32,  38,  53. 
Whitewood,  19,  37,  38. 
Wild  cherry,  35,  38. 
Wind-checks,  23. 
Window-frame,  126. 
Window-trim,  130. 
Wire-edge,  80. 
Wood,  13. 
Wood  and  iron,  38. 
Wood-cells,  14,  15,  16,  17. 
Wood-engraving,  25,  35,  37. 
Wood-fibers,  15,  16. 
Wood-tar,  53. 

Wood-working  tools,  39,  58,  60. 
Wood-working  trades,  39. 
Work-bench,  56,  62. 
Wound-parasite,  43,  44. 
Wreath  of  hand-rail,  138. 
Wrought  nails,  70. 

Xyleutes  robinice,  51. 
Xylocarpa  Virginica,  50. 

Zopherm  Mexicanm,  47,  48,  49. 


jlTIVERSITT 


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